Chapter 1:

Introduction to
Statistics
 Origin and Development

The history of statistics can be traced back at

least to the Biblical times in ancient Egypt,
Babylon, and Rome. As early as 3500 years
before the birth of Christ, statistics had been
used in Egypt in the form of recording the
number of sheep or cattle owned, the amount of
grain produced, and the number of people living
in a particular city.
Origin and Development

In 3800 B.C., Babylonian government used

statistics to measure the number of men under a
king’s rule and the vast territory that he
occupied. It was his belief that the more men
under his command and the more lands he
conquered, the more powerful his kingdom would
become.
In 700 B.C., Roman empires used statistics by
conducting registration to record population for
the purpose of collecting taxes.
Origin and Development

In the modern times, statistical methods have

been used to record and predict such things as
birth and death rates, employment and inflation
rates, sports achievements, and other economic
and social trends. They have even been used to
assess opinions from polls and unlock secret
codes from a game of chance.
Origin and Development

Modern statistics is said to have begun with

John Graunt (1620 – 1674), an English
tradesman. Graunt collected published records
called “bills of mortality” that included
information about the numbers and causes of
deaths in the city of London. Graunt analyzed
more than fifty years of data and created the
first mortality table, a table showing how long a
person may be expected to live after reaching a
certain age.
Origin and Development

There were so many other great men who made

important contributions to statistics.

One of them was Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777 –

1855), the brilliant German mathematician who
used statistical methods in making predictions
about the positions of the planets in our solar
system.
Origin and Development

Adolphe Quetelet (1796 – 1874), a Belgian

astronomer developed the idea of the “average
man” from his studies of the Belgian census. He
was also known as the “Father of Modern
Statistics.”

Karl Pearson (1857 – 1936), an English

mathematician made important links between
probability and statistics.
Origin and Development

In the 20th century, the British statistician Sir

Ronald Aylmer Fisher developed the F-tool in
inferential statistics. This tool has been very
useful in testing improvements of production
from agricultural experiments and improvement
of precision of results from medical, biological,
industrial experimentation.

The American George Gallup (1901 – 1984) was

instrumental in making statistical polling, a
common tool in political campaigns.
 Definition

STATISTICS refers to a field of study in which

quantitative data are collected, presented,
analyzed and interpreted.

Today, statistics and statistical analysis are used

in every profession. Statistics have become a
most valuable tool in business, economics,
management, psychology, health, education and
many others.
Definition

The word statistik comes from the Italian word

statista which means “statesman”. It was first
used by Gottfried Achenwall (1719 – 1772), a
professor at Marlborough and Gottingen, while
Dr. E.A.W. Zimmerman introduced it in England.
It was popularized by Sir John Sinclair in his
work, Statistical Account of Scotland (1791 –
1799). However, people had been recording and
using data long before the 18th century.
 Uses of Statistics

STATISTICS helps people answer questions and

make decisions about many things.

For example, in education, statistics can be used

to assess students’ performance and correlate
factors affecting teaching and learning processes
to improve quality of education.
Uses of Statistics

In Psychology, statistics is used to determine

attitudinal patterns, the causes and effects of
misbehavior,

In business and economics, statistics is used to

analyze a wide range of data like sales, outputs,
price indices, revenues, costs, inventories,
accounts, and the like. This is to monitor status
of customers, employees, orders, and production.
Uses of Statistics

In research and experimentation, statistics is

used to validate or test a claim or inferences
about a group of people or object, or a series of
events.

In the field of medicine, statistics is used to

collect information about patients and diseases
and to make decisions about the use of new
drugs or treatment.
Uses of Statistics

Another important use of statistics is in

demographics, the study of the size, vital
characteristics of the population, and how they
might change over time. Perhaps most familiar
to us are the statistics reported in the news
media about important issues.
 Fields of Statistics

Desciptive statistics is concerned with the

methods of collecting, organizing, and presenting
data appropriately and creatively to describe or
assess group characteristics.

Inferential statistics is concerned with inferring

or drawing conclusions about the population
based from pre-selected elements of that
population.
 Summation Notation
and Rules
To simplify formulas which will be applied to
large set of data, the symbol Σ (capital Greek
sigma, standing for letter S) which is a
mathematical short-hand notation. By definition,
n
Σx i = x 1 + x 2 + … + x n
i=1

and it reads “the summation of the x’s with I

from i to n.
Summation Notation and Rules

Examples

5
Σx i = x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + x 5
i=1

11
Σyj = y5 + y6 + y7 + y8 + y9 + y10 + y11
j=5

35
Σxi = x22 + x23 + … + x35
i=22
Summation Notation and Rules

Properties of Summation

n
n(n+1)
Σxi = 1 + 2 + 3 +… + n = 2
i=1

n
n(n+1)(2n+1)
Σ = i2 12 + 22 + …+ n2 =
i=1 6
n
Σk = k + k +… + k = nk, k is constant
i=1
Summation Notation and Rules

Properties of Summation

n n
Σkxi = kx1 + kx2 + … + kxn = kΣxi
i=1 i=1
k is constant

n
Σ(axi ± byi) = (ax1 ± by1) + (ax2 ± by2) +…
i=1
+ (axn ± byn), a and b are
constants.
n n
= aΣxi ± bΣyi
i=1 i=1
Summation Notation and Rules

Properties of Summation

n
Σ x i 2 = x 12 + x 22 + … + x n2
i=1

n
Σ x i y i = x 1y 1 + x 2y 2 + … + x ny n
i=1
Summation Notation and Rules

Examples

20
20(20+1)
Σi = 1 + 2 + 3 +… + 20 = 2
= 210
i=1

11
11(12)(23)
Σ = i2 12 + 22 + …+ 112 = = 506
i=1 6
5
Σ7 = 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 = 5(7) = 35
i=1
Summation Notation and Rules

Examples

32 32 10
Σi = 11 + 12 +… + 32 = Σi - Σi
i=11 i=1 i=1

32(33) 10(11)
= -
2 2
= 528 - 55
= 473
Summation Notation and Rules

Examples
Given x1 = 12, x2 = 8. x3 = 14, x4 = 6, x5 = 10,
y1 = 9, y2 = 15, y3 = 11, y4 = 20

5
Σx i = x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + x 5
i=1
= 12 + 8 + 14 + 6 + 10
= 50
Summation Notation and Rules

Examples
Given x1 = 12, x2 = 8. x3 = 14, x4 = 6, x5 = 10,
y1 = 9, y2 = 15, y3 = 11, y4 = 20

5
Σ4xi = 4(x3 + x4 + x5)
i=3
= 4(14 + 6 + 10)
= 4(30)
= 120
Summation Notation and Rules

Examples
Given x1 = 12, x2 = 8. x3 = 14, x4 = 6, x5 = 10,
y1 = 9, y2 = 15, y3 = 11, y4 = 20

4 4 4
Σ(3xi – yi) = 3Σ
i=2
x i - Σy i
i=2
i=2
= 3(x2+x3+x4) – (y2+y3+y4)
= 3(28) – (46) = 84 – 46
= 38
Summation Notation and Rules

Examples
Given x1 = 12, x2 = 8. x3 = 14, x4 = 6, x5 = 10,
y1 = 9, y2 = 15, y3 = 11, y4 = 20

5
Σ x i 2 = x 3 2 + x 42 + x 52
i=3
= 142 + 62 + 102
= 196 + 36 + 100
= 332
Summation Notation and Rules

Examples
Given x1 = 12, x2 = 8. x3 = 14, x4 = 6, x5 = 10,
y1 = 9, y2 = 15, y3 = 11, y4 = 20

4
Σ x i y i = x 1y 1 + x 2y 2 + x 3y 3 + x 4y 4
i=1
= 12(9) + 8(15) + 14(11) + 6(20)
= 108 + 120 + 154 + 120
= 502
Summation Notation and Rules

EXERCISE 1.1
Evaluate each of the following:

25 43
1. Σi 3. Σi2
i=1 i=1

46 27
2. Σi 4. Σ3i
i=1 i=1
Summation Notation and Rules

EXERCISE 1.1
Expand each of the following:

8 8
1. Σi 3. Σ(3xi + 2yi)
i=1 i=4

5 9
2. Σ(xi – yi) 4. Σ(xi + i)
i=1 i=3
Summation Notation and Rules

EXERCISE 1.1
Given x1 = 22, x2 = 14, x3 = 15, x4 = 26, x5 = 18,
y1 = 9, y2 = 15, y3 = 21, y4 = 20, y5 = 10
Evaluate the following:
5 5
1. Σx i 3. Σ(xi + yi)
i=1 i=3

5 5
2. Σ(xi – yi) 4. Σ(xi + i)
i=1 i=3
 Variables
A variable is a characteristic that changes or
varies over time and/or for different
individuals or objects under consideration.
Examples
1. The number of ton coal consumption is a
variable that changes from power plant to
power plant;
2. The tonnage distributed by a brokerage firm
 Qualitative and Quantitative Variables

Qualitative variables measure a quality or

characteristic on each individual or object.
Examples
1. Color of cars: red, blue, yellow, gray, black;
2. T-shirt size: extra small, small, medium, large,
extra large.
 Qualitative and Quantitative Variables

Quantitative variables measure a numerical

quality or amount on each individual or object,
often represented by x.
Examples
1. Let x represent the height of male students in
a university;
2. Let x represent the number of batteries
produced by a manufacturing company.
 Discrete and Continuous Variables

A discrete variable can assume only a finite or

countable number of values.
Examples
1. Let x represent the number of washers
produced by a company;
2. Let x represent the number of bolts produced
by a machine.
 Discrete and Continuous Variables

A continuous variable can assume the infinitely

many values corresponding to the point on a
line interval.
Examples
1. Let x represent the height (in meters) of
college students;
2. Let x represent the length of cable (in meters)
installed by Meralco in Metro Manila.
 Classification of Variables
A. According to functional relationship
•Independent variable. This is sometimes
termed as predictor variable.
•Dependent variable. This is sometimes called
criterion variable.
For example, academic achievement is
dependent on I.Q. IQ is the independent variable
and academic achievement is the dependent
variable.
 Classification of Variables
B. According to scale of measurements
•Nominal variable. This property allows one to
make statements of similarities or differences.

•Ordinal variable. This variable refers to a

property whereby members of a group are
ranked.
 Classification of Variables
B. According to scale of measurements
3.Interval variable. This property allows one to
make statements of equality of intervals.

4.Ratio variable. This property permits making

statements of equality of ratios.
 Constants
Constants refer to the fundamental quantities
that do not change in value.

Fixed costs and acceleration due to gravity are

examples of such.
 Data and Information
Data usually refers to facts concerning things
such as status in life of people, defectiveness of
objects or effect of an event to the society.

Information is a set of data that have been

processed and presented in a form suitable for
human interpretation, usually with a purpose
of revealing trends or patterns about the
population.
 Sources of Data
There are two sources of obtaining data.
One is called the primary source from which a
firsthand information is obtained usually by
means of personal interview and actual
observation.
 Sources of Data
On the other hand, the secondary source of
information is taken from other’s works, news
reports, readings, and those that are kept by
the National Statistics Office, Securities and
Exchange Commission, S.S.S., and other
government and private agencies.
 Sources of Data
Data are said to be an asset of a company if they
are accurate, updated, and available when
needed.
Hence, any institution or business organization
must have a database called Management
Information System where all information
about their business are made available in
order to facilitate verification of claims and to
come up with wise decisions.
 Methods of Collecting Data:
Its Advantages and Disadvantages

1. Direct or Interview Method – is a person-to-

person interaction between an interviewer and
an interviewee. Tape recorded or written
interviews will help the researcher obtain
exact information from the interviewee.
Methods of Collecting Data: Its Advantages and Disadvantages

1. Direct or Interview Method

Advantages: Disadvantages:

Precise and consistent It is time, money, and

answers can be obtained effort consuming and it
by modifying or rephrasing will be applicable only for
the questions especially to small population, except
illiterate respondents or to when conducting a census.
children under study.
Methods of Collecting Data: Its Advantages and Disadvantages

2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method – is an

alternative method for the interview method.
Written responses are obtained by disturbing
questionnaires (a list of questions intended to
elicit answers to a given problem, must be
given in a logical order and not too personal) to
the respondents through mail or hand-carry.
Methods of Collecting Data: Its Advantages and Disadvantages

2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method

Advantages: Disadvantages:

Lesser time, money, and Many respondents may not

efforts are consumed. be consistent due to the
poor construction of the
questionnaire. The
meaning of the questions
may be different from each
respondent. Inconsistent
responses can no longer be
modified; it reduces valid
number of respondents.
Methods of Collecting Data: Its Advantages and Disadvantages

3. Registration Method – is enforced by private

organizations or government agencies for
recording purposes.
Methods of Collecting Data: Its Advantages and Disadvantages

3. Registration Method

Advantages: Disadvantages:

Organized data from an Problem arises only when

institution can serve as an agency doesn’t have a
ready references for future Management Information
study or for personal System and if the system
claims of people’s records. or process of registration is
not implemented well.
Methods of Collecting Data: Its Advantages and Disadvantages

4. Observation Method – is a scientific method of

investigation that makes possible use of all
senses to measure or obtain outcomes /
responses from the object of the study.
Methods of Collecting Data: Its Advantages and Disadvantages

4. Observation Method

Advantages: Disadvantages:

Observation method is Subjectivity of information

usually applied to sought cannot be avoided.
respondents that cannot be
asked or need not speak,
especially when behaviors
of persons / culture of
organizations /
performance outcomes of
employees / students are to
be considered.
Methods of Collecting Data: Its Advantages and Disadvantages

5. Experimentation – is used when the objective

is to determine the cause-and-effect of a
certain phenomenon under some controlled
conditions.
Methods of Collecting Data: Its Advantages and Disadvantages

5. Experimentation

Advantages: Disadvantages:

There is objectivity of It’s too difficult to find

information since a respondents with almost
scientific method of inquiry similar characteristics. The
is used. An equal number of whole method must be
respondents with relatively repeated if the desired
similar characteristics are outcome is not reached.
being examined to obtain
the different effects of
something applied to the
experimental group.
Methods of Collecting Data: Its Advantages and Disadvantages

Data that are collected by these methods are

usually referred to as raw data. Responses out
from taped interviews, answered
questionnaires, furnished registration forms,
recorded observations, and results from an
experiment are considered raw data since they
are not yet organized and presented in a form
ready for interpretation. These data can only
be understood if appropriate forms of
presentation are adopted.
 VARIABLES

QUALITATIVE • Dependent QUANTITATIVE

• Independent

• Dichotomous
• Discrete
• Trichotomous
• Continuous
• Multinomous
DATA

SOURCES METHODS SCALES OF PRESENTATION

• Primary • Interview MEASUREMENT • Textual
• Secondary • Questionnaire • Nominal • Tabular
• Registration • Ordinal • Graphical / Chart
• Observation • Interval • Line Graph
• Experimentation • Ratio • Bar Graph
• Pie Graph
• Pictograph
• Map /
Cartogram
Fig. 1.1 Classification of Variables and Data • Scatter
Point
Diagram
 Population and Sample
In statistical usage, the word population is a
finite or infinite collection of objects, events, or
individuals with specified class or
characteristics under consideration, such as
students in a certain university, legitimate taxi
drivers in Metro Manila, cellular phone users,
etc.
Population and Sample

When investigation of the entire population is

difficult due to material constraints like time,
money, and efforts, a sample or group of
samples is drawn to represent the population
under study. A sample therefore is a finite or
limited collection of objects, events, or
individuals selected from a population.
Population and Sample

This sample is expected to possess

characteristics identical to those of the
population, otherwise, the validity and
reliability of information regarding the
population will be in question. A capital letter
“N” is used to denote population size whereas
small letter “n” denotes sample size.
Population and Sample

The symbols are used to denote some statistical

tools to avoid confusion in their usage. The
Greek letters µ (read as miu), σ (sigma), σ2
(sigma squared), and ρ (rho) are used for
parameters, that is any numerical value
describing a characteristic of a population.
While any of those Arabic letters x, s, s2, and r
is used to denote statistic, that is, any
numerical value describing a characteristic of
a sample.
Population and Sample

Symbols for Parameter

• Population size…………………………………..N
• Population mean………………………………...µ
• Population standard deviation………………...σ
• Population variance…………………………….σ2
• Population coefficient of correlation…………..ρ
Population and Sample

Symbols for Statistic

• Sample size…………………………………….....n
• Sample mean…………………………………......x
• Sample standard deviation………………..…...s
• Sample variance…………………………………s2
• Sample coefficient of correlation………………r
 Sloven’s Formula
in Determining the Sample Size

Let N be the population size and the margin of

error e denotes the allowed probability of
committing an error in selecting a small
representative of the population. The sample
size n can be obtained by the formula

n= N
1 + Ne2
Sloven’s Formula

This margin of error, e, could range between 1%

and 10% depending on the desire or intention
of the researcher. However, the researcher
should be aware of the Law of Large Numbers
which states, “the larger the size of the
sample, the more certain we can be sure that
the sample mean is a good estimate of the
population mean.” The larger the size of the
sample, the closer its characteristics would be
to the characteristics of the entire population.
 Census and Sampling Techniques

Complete enumeration or the so-called census

taking is a vital tool if the information
gathered would be used for administrative
purposes and if it is of local or national
concern. Data from complete enumeration or
census are used as benchmarks or reference
points for current statistics and are used as
sampling frame for most current sample
surveys.
Census and Sampling Techniques

A complete enumeration survey is a huge

undertaking which requires a large investment
of money and employment. It will consume a
lot of time and effort. This is the reason why
National Census is held only once every
decade. The Census 2000 was recently
conducted with the help of the National
Statistics Coordination Board for data
processing.
Census and Sampling Techniques

The primary disadvantage of complete

enumeration survey is that data might not be
that accurate anymore since this would
undergo a lot of processes from different hands
of enumerators in their own locality to manual
tallying and computerized encoding of data.
Census and Sampling Techniques

In most practical situations, sample surveys are

allowed since the entire population of a study
is unavailable to the researcher. Also, sample
surveys are preferred due to material
constraints like money, time and efforts.
Sampling may usually produce an accurate
result because for the same resources we can
afford to hire the services of highly qualified
selected personnel to gather data from the
sample.
Census and Sampling Techniques

A sample is a portion or sub-aggregate of the

population that should represent the common
qualities or characteristics of the population.
With a limited length of time and resources,
we can obtain considerable amount of
information from each of the small number of
respondents and validly infer conclusions
about the entire population using the following
random sampling designs.
 Random and Non-random Sampling

Random sampling is the most commonly used

sampling technique in which each member in
the population is given an equal chance of
being selected in the sample. While the non-
random sampling is a method of collecting a
small portion of the population by which not
all the members in the population are given
the chance to be included in the sample.
Census and Sampling Techniques

Certain elements in the population are

deliberately left out from the selection for
varied reasons. Random sampling is usually
called fair sampling while non-random
sampling is a bias sampling.
 Properties of Random Sampling

1. Equiprobability – means that each member of

the population has an equal chance of being
selected and included in the sample.
For instance, there are 10,000 tickets, 1 ticket
assigned to each employee, to be raffled for a
prize of P10,000. The probability of each
member of this population to be drawn and get
the prize is 1/10,000 or 0.0001 or 0.01%.
 Properties of Random Sampling

2. Independence – means that the chance of one

member being drawn does not affect the
chance of the other member. In conducting a
study on the product preference of customers,
the choice of one member of the family cannot
be assumed as the choice of the entire family
members.
 Two Kinds of Random Sampling

1. Restricted Random Sampling – involves

certain restrictions intended to improve the
validity of the sampling. This design is
applicable only when the population being
investigated requires homogeneity.
 Two Kinds of Random Sampling

2. Unrestricted Random Sampling – is

considered the best random sampling design
because there were no restrictions imposed
and every member in the population has an
equal chance of being included in the sample.
 Sampling Techniques

A. Random Sampling Techniques

1. Lottery or Fishbowl Sampling – This is done
by simply writing the names or numbers of all
the members of the population in small rolled
pieces of paper which are later placed in a
container. The researchers shakes the
container thoroughly then draws n out of N
pieces of papers as desired for a sample.
Sampling Techniques

A. Random Sampling Techniques

2. Sampling with the use of Table of Random
Numbers – If the population is large, a more
practical procedure is the use of Table of
Random Numbers which contains rows and
columns of digits randomly ordered by a
computer. A sample of size n can be generated
by beginning at an arbitrary point in Table of
Random Numbers, closing your eyes and
haphazardly pointing at an entry in the Table.
Then proceed in any direction until n distinct
Sampling Techniques

A. Random Sampling Techniques

2. Sampling with the use of Table of Random
Numbers – A sample of size n can be generated
by beginning at an arbitrary point in Table of
Random Numbers, closing your eyes and
haphazardly pointing at an entry in the Table.
Then proceed in any direction until n distinct
numbers could represent the numerically
coded elements in the population.
Sampling Techniques

A. Random Sampling Techniques

3. Systematic Sampling – This method of
sampling is done by taking every kth element
in the population. It applies to a group of
individuals arranged in a waiting line or in a
methodical manner. For instance, the objective
is to get the opinion of employees regarding
employee-management relations, a sample of
size n will be selected from a list of employees
arranged alphabetically or by age, experience,
position or academic rank.
Sampling Techniques

A. Random Sampling Techniques

3. Systematic Sampling – Every kth employee
from the listed order will be included in a
sample. If N is known, k value can be
calculated as:

k= N where N, the population size

n
n, the sample size
Sampling Techniques

A. Random Sampling Techniques

4. Stratified Random Sampling – When the
population can be partitioned into several
strata or subgroups, it may be wiser to employ
the stratified technique to ensure a
representative of each group in the sample.
Random samples will be selected from each
stratum. Selecting a sample with this
technique is quite difficult and costly since it
requires a complete listing, called frame, of all
elements in the population.
Sampling Techniques

There are 2 kinds of stratified random sampling:

a. Simple Stratified Random Sampling – When
the population is grouped into more or less
homogeneous classes, that is, different groups
but with a relatively common characteristic,
then each can be sampled independently by
taking equal number of elements from each
stratum. This method is called simple random
sampling.
Sampling Techniques

There are 2 kinds of stratified random sampling:

a. Simple Stratified Random Sampling –
Suppose a population of students taking
History of size N=800 can be grouped
according to year levels, then using simple
random sampling, 50 students will be taken
randomly from each of the 4 groups and that
comprises a sample size of 200 students.
Sampling Techniques

There are 2 kinds of stratified random sampling:

a. Simple Stratified Random Sampling

Table 1.1

Population Sample

Fourth Yr. 185 50

Third Yr. 200 50
Second Yr. 215 50
First Yr. 200 50
Total N = 800 n = 200
Sampling Techniques

There are 2 kinds of stratified random sampling:

a. Stratified Proportional Random Sampling – In
some cases, the characteristics of the
population is such that the proportions of the
subgroups are grossly equal. The researcher
may wish to maintain these characteristics in
the sample with the use of the stratified
proportion technique.
Sampling Techniques

There are 2 kinds of stratified random sampling:

a. Stratified Proportional Random Sampling

Table 1.2

Population Proportion Sample

N = 800 n = 200
Fourth Yr. 120 15 30
Third Yr. 200 25 50
Second Yr. 220 27.5 55
First Yr. 260 32.5 65
Total 800 100 200
Sampling Techniques

A. Random Sampling Techniques

5. Multi-stage or Multiple Sampling – This
technique uses several stages or phases in
getting the sample from the population.
However, selection of the sample is still done
at random. This method is an extension or a
multiple application of the stratified random
sampling technique. The number of stages
depends on the number of population and the
sample size needed in the survey.
Sampling Techniques

B. Non-random Sampling Techniques

1. Judgment or Purposive Sampling – This
method is also referred as non-random or non-
probability sampling. It plays a major role in
the selection of a particular item and/or in
making decisions in cases of incomplete
responses or observation. This is usually based
on a certain criteria laid down by the
researcher or his adviser.
Sampling Techniques

B. Non-random Sampling Techniques

2. Quota Sampling – This is a relatively quick
and inexpensive method to operate since the
choice of the number of persons or elements to
be included in a sample is done at the
researcher’s own convenience or preference
and is not predetermined by some carefully
operated randomizing plan.
Sampling Techniques

B. Non-random Sampling Techniques

3. Quota Sampling – This is sometimes referred
to as an area sampling because it is usually
applied on a geographical basis. The
population is grouped into cluster or small
units. Area sampling usually requires larger
samples of elementary units than those
required in simple random sampling.
Sampling Techniques

B. Non-random Sampling Techniques

4. Incidental Sampling – This design is applied
to those samples which are taken because they
are the most available. The investigator simply
takes the nearest individuals as subjects of the
study until it reaches the desired size.
Sampling Techniques

B. Non-random Sampling Techniques

5. Convenience Sampling – This method has
been widely used in TV and radio programs to
find out opinions of TV viewers and listeners
regarding a controversial issue. While the
issue is being discussed in a talk show, the
hosts will immediately get responses and
comments from those who will call their
telephone operators. This method is bias
against those without telephones in their
houses.