GEGN 401 - Mineral Deposits

Lecture 19 - Epithermal Au-Ag Deposits

with examples from Creede and Summitville, CO

Murray Hitzman
 Epithermal Deposits

• Epithermal deposits
generally contain precious
metals (Ag, Au) with minor
to significant base metals
(Zn, Pb, Cu).

• They form at shallow

depths (<500-1500 m) at
temps between 100-300°C
(beneath hot springs).

• Epithermal deposits are

most common in volcanic
terranes and formed on, or
immediately adjacent to
active volcanoes. Some
may overlie porphyry
copper deposits (e.g., from Guilbert and Park, 1986, p. 537

Lepanto - Far Southeast).

Murray Hitzman
 Types of epithermal deposits
3 endmember types

• High sulfidation (HS) bodies: Cu-Au-As, sulfide (enargite) rich, hosted by acid-
leached zones with haloes of advanced argillic alteration in andesite arcs, over
porphyries
– Barren lithocaps: advanced argillic zones over porphyry systems, lack metals

• IS veins: Ag-Au ± Zn-Pb, sulfide (sphalerite, galena, tetrahedrite, chalcopyrite)

rich, zoned veins in andesite arcs, adjacent to porphyries
– Wide metal variation, different styles: zoned and/or complex vs monotonous

• Low sulfidation (LS) veins: Au-Ag bonanzas, sulfide poor (pyrrhotite,

arsenopyrite), bimodal volcanic rocks in extensional back arcs
– LS giants: Au-Ag-Te, sulfide poor, alkalic association

Murray Hitzman
Depth of Formation of Epithermal Au-Ag Deposits

Ya

RMt

Vi To

HS IS LS

Geologic evidence indicates that epithermal deposits form at shallow depths -

close to the surface to depths of ~ 1 (1.5) km (Lindgren, 1922). Bonanza Au
deposits (LS) form closer to the surface than Ag-base metal IS veins.
Hedenquist et al., 2000
Murray Hitzman
 Location of Epithermal Au-Ag Deposits
Because they formed near the earth’s surface, and commonly on volcanoes which
have high relief, epithermal deposits are easily eroded. Hence, most deposits
formed recently (but Proterozoic examples are known where the epithermal
environment has been preserved). Exploration for these targets are focused in
areas of recent volcanism such as the Pacific Rim.

DEPOSIT TYPE

Low and intermediate

sulfidation veins

High sulfidation

from Hedenquist et al., 2000, SEG Reviews, v. 13, p. 259

Murray Hitzman
 Epithermal Au-Ag Deposits -
Grade and Tonnage
Epithermal deposits
display inverse
relationship between
tonnage and grade with
several small, very high
grade deposits and other
large, low grade
deposits, reflecting
deposit form (veins vs
disseminations).

High grade
– El Indio, Chile (El(DSO))
0.18Mt, 218 grams/ton
Au
– Hishikari, Japan (Hi) 5.2
Mt, 60 grams/ton Au
Low grade
– Round Mountain, Nevada
(RM) 196 Mt, 1.2
grams/ton Au
– Yanacocha, Peru (Ya)
nearly 1 Bt, 1.2 grams/ton
Au

Murray Hitzman
from Hedenquist et al., 2000, SEG Reviews, v. 13, p. 263
 Epithermal Deposits -
Controls on Location of Mineralization
Epithermal deposits are
extremely variable in form,
from high-grade veins to
irregular zones of
disseminated or veinlet-
controlled mineralization.
There are three primary
controls for epithermal
deposits:
– Structural: Hydrothermal fluids
often flow along faults and are
concentrated in areas where faults
are wide, such as fault intersections
and fault bends (high grade) or in
stockwork zones (low grade).
– Hydrothermal: Explosion breccias
caused by overpressure (boiling) or
intrusion of magma to the near
surface provide permeable zones
for mineral precipitation.
– Lithological: Large variations in
permeability between rock units
may channel fluid flow and result in
zones of mineral precipitation.

from Sillitoe, 1993, Geol Assoc Canada Spec Paper 40. Murray Hitzman
 Structural Controls for Epithermal Deposits
• Many epithermal deposits occur in veins.
• Many of these veins fill faults or fault-related fractures.
• Within fault systems the most probable location for deposits is in areas of increased
permeability:
– fault flexures (dilational rather than compressional jogs)
– fault intersections
– tension fractures (fault step-overs)
– splay zones (horsetails)
– imbricated fault zone (abundant dilational jogs and tension fractures)

from Corbett & Leach, 1996,

SW Pacific Rim Au-Cu Systems

Murray Hitzman
 Types of Epithermal Deposits -
High Sulfidation Deposits

from Hedenquist et al., 2000,

SEG Reviews, v. 13, p. 249

High Sulfidation deposits (after the HS enargite; also known as enargite-gold or

acid-sulfate or alunite-kaolinite deposits). Fluids derived from magma
degassing; vapors that condense into groundwater form hydrochloric and
sulfuric acids that leach the rock. A later, less acidic fluid brings in the metals.
Examples: El Indio, Chile; Chinkuashih, Taiwan; Nansatsu, Japan; Paradise Peak, Nevada; Goldfield,
Nevada; Summitville, Colorado; Pueblo Viejo, Dominican Republic
Murray Hitzman
Kawah Ijen, Java

Murray Hitzman
Werner Giggenbach, geochemist, 1937-
1997

Condensation of magmatic vapor with HCl

and SO2 generates acidic (pH ~1) waters:
causes leaching of rocks, and hypogene
advanced argillic alteration (alunite,
kaolinite): precursor to HS ore

View: “rhyolite”, 99.9% SiO2

Murray Hitzman
(metals during sericite stage)

Murray Hitzman
 Field Characteristics of High and Low Sulfidation
Epithermal Deposits
High Sulfidation Low (and Intermediate)
Sulfidation
Genetically related Andesite-rhyodacite Andesite - rhyolite
volcanic rocks

Alteration zone Areally extensive Commonly small and visually

(commonly several km2) subtle
and visually prominent
Key proximal Alunite; prophyllite at Sericite (illite), adularia
alteration minerals deep levels

Quartz gangue Vuggy, Fine-grained, Chalcedony and/or quartz

massive, replacement – displaying crustiform, bladed,
main ore host and carbonate-replacement
textures.
Carbonate gangue Absent Common, generally Mn-rich

Other gangue Barite, native sulfur Barite

Key sulfides Enargite & luzonite major, Sphalerite, galena, and

less common covellite; tetrahedrite; minor
generally later than chalcopyrite
abundant pyrite Indicator minerals for LS,
pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite
Sulfide abundance 10-90% volume of ore, 1-20% volume of ore, typically
dominantly pyrite <5%, predominantly pyrite;
~1% for LS
Metals present Cu, Au, As (Ag, Pb) Au and/or Ag (Zn, Pb, Cu)

Trace metals Bi, Sb, Mo, Sn, Zn, Te, Mo, Sb, As, (Te, Se, Hg)
(Hg)

Murray Hitzman
 Types of Epithermal Deposits -
Low Sulfidation Deposits

from Hedenquist et al., 2000,

SEG Reviews, v. 13, p. 249

Low Sulfidation deposits (also known as adularia-sericite deposits).

Magmatic fluids and gases mix with, and heat, groundwater which becomes
the ore fluid.
Examples: LS: Sleeper, Nevada; Round Mountain, Nevada; Nevada; McLaughlin, California;
IS: Comstock Lode, Creede, Colorado; Cripple Creek, Colorado; Hishikari, Japan; Baguio, Philippines
Murray Hitzman
Boiling hot springs:
Neutral pH waters form
silica sinters
Murray Hitzman
Fumarole discharge:

Steam-heated acid waters form in

vadose zone, creating blankets of
kaolinite-alunite above the water
table, chalcedony at base

Murray Hitzman
Lithocap (± HS) settings only LS settings only
(steam-heated blanket possible) H2S + 2O2 = H2SO4

Steam-heated waters,
LS, IS, HS possible

(HCl, SO2)

Any sulfide-rich setting

3 types only ! Sillitoe, 1993

Murray Hitzman
Low-sulfidation schematic model

Murray Hitzman
 Field Characteristics of High and Low Sulfidation
Epithermal Deposits
High Sulfidation Low (and Intermediate)
Sulfidation
Genetically related Andesite-rhyodacite Andesite - rhyolite
volcanic rocks

Alteration zone Areally extensive Commonly small and visually

(commonly several km2) subtle
and visually prominent
Key proximal Alunite; prophyllite at Sericite (illite), adularia
alteration minerals deep levels

Quartz gangue Vuggy, Fine-grained, Chalcedony and/or quartz

massive, replacement – displaying crustiform, bladed,
often hosts ore and carbonate-replacement
textures.
Carbonate gangue Absent Common, generally Mn-rich

Other gangue Barite, native sulfur Barite

Key sulfides Enargite, luzonite, Sphalerite, galena, and

chalcocite, covellite, tetrahedrite; minor
bornite common; chalcopyrite
generally later than
abundant pyrite
Sulfide abundance 10-90% volume of ore, 1-20% volume of ore, typically
dominantly pyrite <5%, predominantly pyrite

Metals present Cu, Au, As (Ag, Pb) Au and/or Ag (Zn, Pb, Cu)

Trace metals Bi, Sb, Mo, Sn, Zn, Te, Mo, Sb, As, (Te, Se, Hg)
(Hg)

Murray Hitzman
 Boiling - Key to Epithermal Deposits
• Most epithermal deposits contain
a variety of evidence for boiling
(mineralogy, fluid inclusion,
temperature patterns).

• Boiling forms a vapor phase

which causes a change in pH of
liquid (CO2 loss to vapor) and
shifts mineral-fluid equilibria.
Also, vapor causes a blanket of
steam-heated alteration (steam
transports H2S which forms an
acidic condensate; H2S oxidizes
to sulfuric acid in the vadose
zone).

• Results in rapid cooling of liquid

phase which causes quartz
precipitation; H2S loss to vapor
removes ligand for gold
transport, causing precipitation.

• The depth of boiling depends on:

– Fluid temperature from Henley, 1985, Soc Econ Geol, Reviews v. 2, p. 10
– Fluid salinity
– Fluid gas content (%CO2)
Murray Hitzman
Indications and effects of boiling
-
HCO3 + H+ = H2CO3 = CO2 + H2O

Illite + 6 SiO2 + 2 K+ = 3 adularia + 2 H+

- -
Au(HS)2 + 0.5 H2 = Au + H2S + HS
H2S = HS- + H+

Wairakei bladed calcite

(due to boiling), qtz
infill
2 HCO3- + Ca++ =
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O

Murray Hitzman
 Waiotapu (Sacred Waters), NZ

Boiling discharge, silica sinter Steam-heated mudpools

Murray Hitzman
Lewis-Crofoot, NV: LS veins, steam-heated overprint (falling water table)
(NB: remnant qtz veins + Au within overprinted zone)

Sulphur near paleosurface

Murray Hitzman
 Quartz -
The Ubiquitous Mineral in Epithermal Deposits

• With decreasing temperature,

quartz solubility in water
decreases leading to quartz
precipitation.

• Rapid temperature drop

(associated with boiling) will lead
to “dumping” of quartz. This can
cause quartz veining and
silicification (common in
epithermal systems).

• At higher temperatures (above

400°C) quartz shows retrograde
solubility in water (but this is less
true in saline fluids.

from Fournier, 1985, Soc Econ Geol, Reviews v. 2, p. 54

Murray Hitzman
McLaughlin, CA
LS sheeted veins beneath sinter

Photo: R.H. Henley

Murray Hitzman
Murray Hitzman
 Key Epithermal Minerals
• Adularia:
– a moderate to low-temperature mineral of the alkali feldspar group (KAlSi 3O8). Translucent to white, often with opalescence. Typically has a high
barium content. LS or IS deposits, in veins.
• Clays:
– Illite, interstratified illite-smectite, and smectite, forming alteration haloes around veins, indicating progressively lower temps (>200, 150-200, <150
C, respectively). All epithermal deposits.
• Kaolinite
– An aluminum silicate, indicating acid conditions, either within a steam-heated blanket, or as a halo to HS deposits.
• Alunite:
– Hydrothermal alteration product of feldspathic igneous rocks. KAl 3(SiO4)2(OH)6. Has a dull white to cream color - if yellow may have intermixed
jarosite, an ocher-yellow iron sulfate. KFe 3(SO4)2(OH)6. HS, or steam-heated blanket.
• Pyrophyllite:
– A white to grey hydrous alumino-silicate mineral which resembles talc. AlSi 2O5(OH). Roots of HS deposits, some IS veins.
• Barite:
– A white, yellow, or brown orthorhombic sulfate mineral which occurs in tabular crystals. Has a high specific gravity (4.5; i.e. it is heavy). BaSO 4.
IS veins, late in HS deposits.
• Calcite:
– CaCO3, either as a replacement of feldspar (eg in propylitic alteration) , or bladed, within LS veins due to boiling.
• Rhodochrosite:
– A rose-red to pink to grey rhombohedral mineral which is the manganese end-member of the carbonate group. MnCO 3. Commonly contains some
calcium and iron. IS veins with ore.
• Chalcedony:
– A cyrptocrystalline variety of quartz. It commonly forms concretionary masses with radial-fibrous and concentric structure. It is commonly
transluscent to semitransparent, has a wax-like luster, and ranges in color from white to pale blue to grey to black depending on impurities. It is
commonly microscopically fibrous and has a lower density and lower indices of refraction than quartz. LS veins, late in HS deposits.
• Enargite:
– A greyish black or black orthrhombic copper-arsenic mineral. Cu 3AsS4. It may also contain antimony, iron, and zinc. Is dimorphous with luzonite.
Luzonite is a grey isometric mineral, Cu 3AsS4, dimorphous with enargite. HS deposits.
• Tetrahedrite:
– Steel-grey to black isometric mineral (Cu,Fe) 12Sb4S13 which is isomorphous with tennantite (Cu,Fe)12As4S13 and commonly contains Zn, Pb, Ag, or
Hg. Commonly with sphalerite, ZnS. It is a significant ore of silver. IS veins, or late in HS deposits.

Murray Hitzman
Key Epithermal
Minerals

The key epithermal

minerals are stable at
different temperatures
and pH conditions and
can thus serve as a
way of determining the
type of epithermal
deposit and the
chemical conditions
present within the
deposit.

from Hedenquist et al., 2000,

SEG Reviews, v. 13, p. 261.

Murray Hitzman
Examples of Low (IS)
and High Sulfidation
Epithermal Systems in
Colorado

The San Juan volcanic field

of southwestern Colorado
hosts a number of
epithermal Ag-Au deposits.
Several of these have been X
well studied and have Creede
become “type” deposits.

X
We will look at the Creede
system (low sulfidation) and Summitville
the infamous Summitville
system (high sulfidation)

from Hayba et al., 1985,

SEG Reviews, v. 2, p. 136.

Murray Hitzman
 Creede, CO —
A Low Sulfidation
Precious Metals
Deposit
• The Creed Ag- (Au) district is located in
the San Juan Mountains of SW Colorado X
• It was a significant producer of silver
with subsidiary Au, Pb, and Zn. The
Ag:Au ratio is approximately 400 (i.e.
high silver to gold).
• The San Juan Mountains consist of
dominantly mid-Tertiary andesites
derived from stratovolcanic centers
which are overlain by a series of quartz
latitic to rhyolitic ash-flow sheets
erupted from at least 15 major calderas.
• The Creede district is located within the
Bachelor caldera which is itself located
between the younger San Luis and
Creede calderas. All of these calderas
erupted within a short interval between
27.6 and 26.5 m.y.
• The Creede ores are hosted by latitic to
rhyolitic ash flow tuffs infilling the
Bachelor caldera.

from L:ipman, 2000, Geol Soc Am

Spec Paper 346.
Murray Hitzman
 Creede, CO — Structure
• Mined ore deposits consist of a series of veins within
faults.
• The faults make up a graben running between the Creede
and San Luis calderas.
• Radiometric dating of vein adularia and mixed-layer clays
indicates that the ores were deposited approximately 1
million years after the youngest volcanic events (related
to younger intrusive activity that did not erupt).

from Hayba et al., 1985, SEG Reviews, v. 2, p. 137, 138.

Murray Hitzman
 Creede, CO — Veins and Zoning
• Mineralization filled open fractures — this is determined by mineral textures (crustiform
minerals, colloform banding, crystals growing into open vugs, etc.)
• The ore zone comprises a narrow vertical range (250 - 400 m thick) which was mined nearly
continuously for approximately 3 km along strike in the Amethyst-OH vein system and
approximately 2 km along strike in the Bulldog vein system.
• Veins range in width from <1m to approximately 10m. Faults that formed the locus for the
veins must have been relatively open - like tension fractures.
• Mineralization in the Creede veins is strongly zoned:
– North (OH) Assemblage: chlorite - hematite - quartz - adularia - sphalerite - galena - chalcopyrite -
pyrite + fluorite + tetrahedrite. (Silver is within argentiferous galena and tetrahedrite)
– South (Bulldog) Assemblage: barite - rhodochrosite - quartz - adularia - galena - sphalerite - fluorite -
tetrahedrite - silver sulfosalt minerals - native silver.

Long section projection of the OH vein and the southern portion of the Amethyst vein
from Hayba et al., 1985, SEG Reviews, v. 2, p. 139.

Murray Hitzman
 Creede, CO
What is the Difference Between the Two Assemblages?

• North (OH) Assemblage: chlorite - hematite - quartz - adularia - sphalerite - galena

- chalcopyrite - pyrite + fluorite + tetrahedrite. (Silver is within argentiferous
galena and tetrahedrite)
• South (Bulldog) Assemblage: barite - rhodochrosite - quartz - adularia - galena -
sphalerite - fluorite - tetrahedrite - silver sulfosalt minerals - native silver.

• The North assemblage has chlorite-hematite and chalcopyrite, the southern has
barite-rhodochrosite. Which is higher temperature?

Long section projection of the OH vein and the southern portion of the Amethyst vein
from Hayba et al., 1985, SEG Reviews, v. 2, p. 139.

Murray Hitzman
 Creede, CO —
Direction of Fluid Flow
• Several indicators are
used to determine fluid
movement within the vein
system:
– Fluid inclusions in quartz and
barite indicate higher
temperatures and evidence of
boiling in the Northern (OH)
Assemblage.
– A well developed “clay cap”
of feldspar-destructive,
mixed-layer illite/smectite
(“sericite”) alteration occurs
above the Northern (OH)
Assemblage caused by
recondensation of acid-rich
steam derived by boiling of
the ore fluid. Direction of fluid movement
– Hydrothermal leaching of
minerals (barite, fluorite,
rhodochrosite) is more
intense at the northern end of
the OH vein. Hydrothermal
leaching indicates that the
solutions entering the ore
zone were, at times,
undersaturated with respect
to selected components. Direction of fluid movement

from Hayba et al., 1985, SEG Reviews, v. 2, p. 142, 143.

Murray Hitzman
 Creede, CO — Model for Ore Formation
• Intrusion of a felsic pluton below the Creede area set up a convection cell involving magmatic (?) and
groundwater that extracted metals and sulfur from rocks at depth (including the Precambrian basement - Pb
isotopic studies) and moved these elements to the near surface.
• Fluids moved upward in the convection cell and were channeled south beneath soft, poorly-welded, relatively
impermeable rhyolitic tuffs (this horizon marks the top of the ore zone).
• In the near surface these fluids mixed with cooler groundwater and locally boiled (due to reduced pressure).
Boiling resulted in the further cooling of the fluids and a slight pH rise of the remaining liquid as CO 2 and H2S
partitioned into the vapor phases. This phase change caused supersaturation of a number of elements including
the metals of economic interest leading to the filling of the fluid conduits (veins).
• Recondensation of acidic steam above the vein system lead to feldspar-destructive alteration (advanced argillic
alteration) of these cap rocks which further reduced the permeability of this zone.
• Upward flowing solutions were increasingly blocked, forcing solutions south toward the permeable talus-regolith
of the Creede caldera (outflow zone). Cooling along this pathway resulted in mineral deposition.
• Southward fluid migration resulted in the lateral zoning pattern of mineralization.

from Hayba et al., 1985, SEG Reviews, v. 2, p. 146.

Murray Hitzman
 Summitville, CO —
A High Sulfidation Precious Metals Deposit

• The Summitville Au (Ag) deposit

was a significant producer of
gold, silver, and copper. The
Ag:Au ratio is approximately 1.2
(i.e. almost equal gold and silver).
X
• The Summitville deposit is
located within the Platoro caldera
and on the edge of the younger
(nested) Summitville caldera.

• Mining took place from the 19th

century to 1947 with a brief
period in the 1990s which ended
in the site being taken over by
EPA.
from Hayba et al., 1985, SEG Reviews, v. 2, p. 152.

Murray Hitzman
Murray Hitzman
 Summitville, CO — Geology
• The deposit is hosted in a quartz latite porphyry lava dome (South Mountain volcanic dome -
quartz latite) which was emplaced 22.8 m.y. ago at the intersection of the Summitville caldera
ring fracture and the Pass Creek- Elwood Creek - Platoro fault zone.
• The South Mountain quartz latite dome was intruded into the 29 m.y. old Summitville
Andesite which filled the Platoro caldera.
• The South Mountain quartz latite dome is overlain by the unaltered Cropsy Mountain Rhyolite
(20.2 m.y. old).
• Thus, mineralization is bracketed between 22.8 and 20.2 m.y. A date on hydrothermal alunite
gives 22.3 m.y. — shortly after dome emplacement.

from Hayba et al., 1985,

SEG Reviews, v. 2, p. 152.

Murray Hitzman
 Summitville, CO — Orebody Geometry
• Orebodies are localized along the southwest margin of the coarsely porphyritic core of the
dome.
• The ore occurs as a series of irregular pipes and vein-like masses of quartz-alunite formed by
replacement of the latite.
• Significant mineralization is confined to a vertical interval of approximately 400m and the
surface outcrop of the altered and mineralized area is an ellipse.

from Hayba et al., 1985,

SEG Reviews, v. 2, p. 152.

Murray Hitzman
after Gray and Coolbaugh, 1994, by Arribas, 1995

Murray Hitzman
 Summitville, CO — Wallrock Alteration
• Alteration displays a well defined vertical
and lateral pattern from:
– An inner zone of vuggy silica alteration
interpreted to be the result of acid
dissolution of all the primary rock forming
minerals except quartz. Most of the ore
occurs in this very permeable zone
(permeability due to the holes left by the
dissolved phenocyrsts). The vuggy silica
zone thins downward becoming extremely
thin (a narrow vein) below 300m below the
present surface. Rare fluid inclusions
indicate this alteration occurred at
temperatures between 230° - 300°C; there is
no evidence of boiling at this level.

– An intermediate zone of quartz-alunite.

Alunite occurs as psuedomorphs after
potassium feldspar phenocrysts and
groundmass. This zone is up to 20m wide at
the present surface. It thins downward
disappearing at approximately 250m below
the present surface.

– A quartz-kaolinite (“clay alteration”) zone in

which the groundmass of the volcanic rocks
is largely silicified and feldspar phenocrysts
are replaced by kaolinite. At depth the this
zone replaces the quartz-alunite zone
(kaolinite replacing alunite).
from Hayba et al., 1985, SEG Reviews, v. 2, p. 153.

Murray Hitzman
 Summitville, CO — Wallrock Alteration
• Alteration displays a well defined lateral pattern from the inner quartz-alunite zone to clay
zones that are zoned outward from:
– Inner illite-kaolinite zone
– Intermediate montmorillonite zone
– Outer chlorite zone (not always present)
Note that kaolinite is present throughout the clay zone but decreases in abundance outward.

• Rock in the inner quartz-alunite zone is hard and brittle and forms prominent outcrops,
rock in the clay alteration zones is soft and incompetent and weathers easily.

Steven & Ratté, 1960

from Hayba et al., 1985,

SEG Reviews, v. 2, p. 153.

pH ~ >6 4-6 2 - 4 <2 Vuggy qtz zone

flares upward
Murray Hitzman
 Summitville, CO:
Alteration zoning and ore
bodies within dome; strong
structural control
after Gray and Coolbaugh, 1994

Murray Hitzman
Summitville, CO: vuggy qtz with sharp alunite halo

Murray Hitzman
 Summitville, CO — Mineralization
• Field evidence such as the presence of ore minerals in cross-cutting
fractures and in voids in vuggy silica indicate that mineralization post-
dated most of the advanced argillic alteration.

• There were two main stages of mineralization:

– Main Stage:
» (upper): characterized by covellite - luzonite - enargite - pyrite - marcasite
assemblage locally with native sulfur and minor sphalerite and gold. Silver
occurs in covellite, electrum, and sulfosalt minerals.
» (lower): characterized by chalcopyrite - tennantite - pyrite - sphalerite - (galena)
assemblage. The tennantite has minor Sb and Ag.
– Late Stage: characterized by barite - jarosite - goethite - gold. This type of alteration
is found in the uppermost levels of the deposit and is extremely high grade (Au) but
volumetrically minor. Typical of HS deposits, gold after copper stage.

• Late supergene oxidation extends to a depth of 30 - 70 m below the

surface. Copper has been removed from this zone and is deposited in
an enrichment blanket as digenite (Cu9S5)and chalcocite coating and
replacing other sulfides. Also related to gold enrichment?, i.e.,
goethite and jarosite commonly formed in supergene environment.

Murray Hitzman
 High and Low Sulfidation Epithermal Deposits
• Low Sulfidation deposits:
– The ore zone commonly occurs at distances of several kilometers
from the heat source that drove hydrothermal circulation. The
ores occupy a narrow vertical range, the top of which lies at
distances of 200 - 600 m below the paleo-water table.
– The ores appear to have been deposited at, or close to, the
interface between a deeply circulating, hydrothermal fluid
(moderately saline to saline) and overlying groundwater.
– In the upper portion of this system, fluid flow is commonly lateral
and discharge to the surface may be minimal and confined to a
small fraction of the total projected surface area of the system.
– Either lithologic aquitards or gravity-driven groundwater flow form
hydrologic caps on the hydrothermal plume; structures above this
level are barren of mineralization and often display no evidence of
vein filling or wallrock alteration.
– The waters making up the hydrothermal fluid are predominantly of
meteoric origin, though some magmatic contribution cannot be
ruled out.
– Boiling occurs in the upper portion of the hydrothermal plume,
and mixing with surrounding ground waters occurs along the
sides and top of the plume. The depth of boiling is dependent on Low
the salinity and gas content of the hydrothermal fluid as well as sulfidation
the structural regime (pressure constraints). The degree of fluid
mixing is dependent on the density contrasts between the
hydrothermal plume and the surrounding groundwater.
– Both boiling and fluid mixing lead to the precipitation of ore and
gangue minerals.
– The acid required to produce sericitic alteration associated with
the deposits is produced by the condensation, in the upper part of
the system, of acid volatiles produced by boiling of the
hydrothermal fluid.

Murray Hitzman
 High and Low Sulfidation Epithermal Deposits
High
Sulfidation
• High Sulfidation deposits
– These deposits commonly display a direct
temporal and spatial association with recently
active volcanic domes.

– The ore zone occupies a narrow vertical interval,

the top of which appears to have been within 200
500 m of the paleo-water table.

– Isotopic data indicate both sulfur and lead were

derived from either a magmatic source or from the
enclosing volcanic rocks. Fluids may contain a
magmatic component.

– The sulfuric acid responsible for the intense acid-

sulfate wallrock alteration which preceded
mineralization appears to have been generated by
boiling of fluids with a high SO2 content just
below the level of alteration.

– The increased permeability produced by the

intense leaching associated with acid-sulfate
alteration enhanced fluid channelways for
subsequent ore fluid migration.

Murray Hitzman
 High and Intermediate Sulfidation Epithermal Deposits

• Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003

Murray Hitzman
 Low Sulfidation Epithermal Deposits

• Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003

Murray Hitzman
 Volcanic-Hosted Epithermal Deposits-
Important Question to Ask for Exploration or Production
• What are the age of the host rocks? They should be young (<30 m.y.)
• What kind of system is it? High or low sulfidation. Has the alteration zoning
been worked out?
• What kind of grades have they encountered? High grade or low. If high, are
they targeting a small, structurally controlled deposit? If low, do they expect
high grade veins? If so why? Or is the target a bulk tonnage, low grade
deposit?
• Is the structure in the deposit understood well enough to reasonably target
drill holes?
• Is the exposure being investigated near the top of the system (a large tonnage
below) or structurally deeper so that grade will disappear soon with depth?
• Are there hydrothermal breccias or lithologic contacts that would control
permeability?
• Have geophysical models been developed to take into account silicification
(high resistivity) and clay alteration (low resistivity)?
• What is the metallurgy of the deposit? Is the gold encapsulated in silica? Are
there complex, gold-bearing sulfides?
• If high sulfidation deposit, has work been undertaken to mitigate
environmental impacts - acid mine drainage?

Murray Hitzman
Characteristics of LS deposits

Steam-heated blanket
in vadose zone Sinter

Murray Hitzman