From:

Abhishek Dadhich

1
INTRODUCTION
Modulation is the process of frequency
translation in which any one
parameter(Amplitude, frequency or phase)
of high frequency carrier signal is varied in
accordance with instantaneous value of
low frequency modulating signal.
Modulation is either analog or digital.

2
INTRODUCTION
Many signals in modern communication
systems are digital
Additionally, analog signals are
transmitted digitally
Digitizing a signal results in reduced
distortion and improvement in signal-to-
noise ratios

3
INTRODUCTION
A digital signal is superior to an analog
signal because it is more robust to noise
and can easily be recovered, corrected
and amplified. For this reason, the
tendency today is to change an analog
signal to digital data.
The process of transmitting signals in the
form of pulses (discontinuous signals) by
using special techniques.
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 PULSE MODULATION INCLUDES

• Pulse Amplitude Modulation

• Pulse Width Modulation
• Pulse Position Modulation
• Pulse Code Modulation
• Delta Modulation

5
PULSE MODULATION

Analog Pulse Modulation Digital Pulse Modulation

Pulse Amplitude (PAM) Pulse Code (PCM)

Pulse Width (PWM) Delta Modulation(DM)

Pulse Position (PPM)

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Sampling
 The process of transmitting signals in the
form of pulses (discontinuous signals) by
using special techniques.
 The signal is sampled at regular intervals
such that each sample is propotional to the
amplitude of signal at that instant.This
technique is called “sampling”.
 Sampling is common in all pulse
modulation techniques.
7
Sampling
Analog signal is sampled every TS secs.
Ts is referred to as the sampling interval.
fs = 1/Ts is called the sampling rate or
sampling frequency.
There are 3 sampling methods:
Ideal - an impulse at each sampling
instant
Natural - a pulse of short width with
varying amplitude
Flat top - sample and hold, like natural
but with single amplitude value
8
 Three different sampling methods
for PCM

9
4.9
Sampling Rate
• Nyquist showed that it is possible to
reconstruct a band-limited signal from
periodic samples, as long as the sampling
rate is at least twice the frequency of the of
highest frequency component of the signal
i.e. fs ≥ 2fm
where fs is sampling rate
• Sampling rates that are too low result in
aliasing or foldover
10
Sampling

11
Sampling
Sampling alone is not a digital technique
The immediate result of sampling is a
pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM)
signal
PAM is an analog scheme in which the
amplitude of the pulse is proportional to the
amplitude of the signal at the instant of
sampling
Another analog pulse-forming technique is
known as pulse-duration modulation
(PDM). This is also known as pulse-width
modulation (PWM)
Pulse-position modulation is closely
related to PDM
12
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
In PAM,amplitude of pulses is varied in
accordance with instantaneous value of
modulating signal.

13
 Pulse Amplitude Modulation
The carrier is in the form of narrow pulses
having frequency fs.The uniform sampling
takes place in multiplier to generate PAM
signal.Samples are placed Ts sec away from
each other.
Modulating Multiplier
Signal Low PAM
Pass Signal
Filter
Pulse
train
generator 14
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
Depending upon the shape and polarity of
the sampled pulses, PAM is of two types,
Natural PAM sampling occurs when top
portion of the pulses are subjected to
follow the modulating wave.

15
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
Flat topped PAM sampling is often used
because of the ease of generating the
modulated wave. In this pulses have flat
tops after modulation.

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Pulse Amplitude Modulation
The PAM signal can be detected by
passing it through a low pass filter.

Fig
17
 Pulse Amplitude Modulator

Analog AND PAM FM PAM - FM

Pulse Shaping
Signal Gate Network Modulator

Pulses at sampling frequency HF Carrier Oscillator

18
Pulse Width Modulation
In this type, the amplitude is maintained
constant but the width of each pulse is
varied in accordance with instantaneous
value of the analog signal.

19
Pulse Width Modulation

Fig:
20
Pulse Width Modulation
That is why the information is contained in
width variation. This is similar to FM.
In pulse width modulation (PWM), the
width of each pulse is made directly
proportional to the amplitude of the
information signal.

21
Pulse Width Modulation

22
Pulse Width Modulation
A simple method to generate the PWM
pulse train corresponding to a given signal
is the intersective PWM: the signal (here
the green sinewave) is compared with a
sawtooth waveform (blue). When the latter
is less than the former, the PWM signal
(magenta) is in high state (1). Otherwise it
is in the low state (0).

23
Pulse Width Modulation
The block diagram of next slide can be
used for generation of PWM as well as
PPM.In this case a sawtooth signal of
frequency fs is a sampling signal.
It is applied to inverting terminal of a
comparator with modulating signal at non
inverting terminal.
O/P remains high as long as modulating
signal is higher than that of ramp signal.

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Pulse Width Modulation

25
Pulse Position Modulation
In this type, the sampled waveform has
fixed amplitude and width whereas the
position of each pulse is varied as per
instantaneous value of the analog signal.
PPM signal is further modification of a
PWM signal.

26
Pulse Position Modulation

27
Pulse Position Modulation
The vertical dotted lines shown in last slide
treated as reference lines.
The PPM pulses marked 1,2 and 3 go
away from their respective reference
lines.This corresponds to increase in
modulating signal amplitude.
Then as modulating signal decreases the
PPM pulses 4,5,6,7 come closer to their
respective reference lines.
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Pulse Position Modulation
• The PPM signal can be generated from
PWM signal.
• The PWM pulses obtained at the
comparator output are applied to a
monostable multivibrator which is –ve edge
• triggered.
• Hence for each trailing edge of PWM
signal, the monostable output goes high.It
remains high for a fixed time decided by its
own RC components.
29
Pulse Position Modulation
Thus as the trailing edges of the PWM
signal keeps shifting in propotion with the
modulating signal,the PPM pulses also
keep shifting.
Therefore all the PPM pulses have the
same amplitude and width.The information
is conveyed via changing position of
pulses.
30
Digital Pulse Modulation
Merits of Digital Communication:
1.Digital signals are very easy to receive.
The receiver has to just detect whether the
pulse is low or high.
2.AM & FM signals become corrupted over
much short distances as compared to
digital signals. In digital signals, the
original signal can be reproduced
accurately.
32
Digital Pulse Modulation
• Merits of Digital Communication
3.The signals lose power as they travel,
which is called attenuation. When AM
and FM signals are amplified, the noise
also get amplified. But the digital signals
can be cleaned up to restore the quality
and amplified by the regenerators.
4.The noise may change the shape of the
pulses but not the pattern of the pulses.
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Digital Pulse Modulation
Merits of Digital Communication:
5.AM and FM signals can be received by
any one by suitable receiver. But digital
signals can be coded so that only the
person, who is intended for, can receive
them.
6.AM and FM transmitters are ‘real time
systems’. i.e. they can be received only at
the time of transmission. But digital
signals can be stored at the receiving end.
7.The digital signals can be stored.
34
Digital Pulse Modulation
The process of Sampling which we have
already discussed in initial slides is also
adopted in Digital pulse modulation.
It is mainly of two types:
Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)
Delta Modulation(DM)

35
Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)
Pulse-Code Modulation (PCM) is the most
commonly used digital modulation scheme
In PCM, the available range of signal
voltages is divided into levels and each is
assigned a binary number
Each sample is represented by a binary
number and transmitted serially
The number of levels available depends
upon the number of bits used to express
the sample value
The number of levels is given by: N = 2m
36
Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)
 PCM consists of three steps to digitize
an analog signal:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Binary encoding
 Before we sample, we have to filter the
signal to limit the maximum frequency of
the signal .Filtering should ensure that
we do not distort the signal, ie remove
high frequency components that affect
the signal shape.
37
Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)

The basic elements of a PCM system. 38

Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)
Analog to digital converter employs two
techniques:
1. Sampling: The process of generating
pulses of zero width and of amplitude equal
to the instantaneous amplitude of the analog
signal. The no. of pulses per second is
called “sampling rate”.

39
Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)
 2. Quantization: The process of dividing
the maximum value of the analog signal
into a fixed no. of levels in order to
convert the PAM into a Binary Code.
The levels obtained are called
“quanization levels”.

40
 V Sampling,
o Quantization and
l Coding
t
a
g
e Time
7 111
L 110
B
e
6
i C
5 101
v 100 n o
4
e 3 011 a d
l 2 010 r e
s 1 001 s
0 Time 000 y
V
o 010101110111110101010
l
t
a
g
e
Time 41
Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)

42
Quantization
By quantizing the PAM pulse, original signal
is only approximated
The process of converting analog signals to
PCM is called quantizing
Since the original signal can have an infinite
number of signal levels, the quantizing
process will produce errors called
quantizing errors or quantizing noise

43
Quantization

Two types of quantization: (a) midtread and

(b) midrise 44
Quantization
Coding and Decoding
The process of converting an analog signal
into PCM is called coding, the inverse
operation is called decoding
Both procedures are accomplished in a
CODEC

45
Quantization

46
Quantization

47
Quantization and encoding of
a sampled signal

48
Quantization Error
When a signal is quantized, we introduce
an error - the coded signal is an
approximation of the actual amplitude
value.
The difference between actual and coded
value (midpoint) is referred to as the
quantization error.
The more zones, the smaller  which
results in smaller errors.
BUT, the more zones the more bits
required to encode the samples -> higher
bit rate
49
Quantization Error (cont.)
Round-off error
Overload error
Overload

50
Quantization Noise

Illustration of the quantization process 51

Pulse Code Modulation
In PCM system,N number of binary digits
are transmitted per sample.Hence the
signaling rate and channel bandwidth of
PCM are very large.
Also encodind,decoding and quantizing
circuitary of PCM is complex.

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Delta Modulation
In Delta Modulation, only one bit is
transmitted per sample
That bit is a one if the current sample is
more positive than the previous sample,
and a zero if it is more negative
Since so little information is transmitted,
delta modulation requires higher sampling
rates than PCM for equal quality of
reproduction
53
Delta Modulation
This scheme sends only the difference
between pulses, if the pulse at time tn+1 is
higher in amplitude value than the pulse at
time tn, then a single bit, say a “1”, is used
to indicate the positive value.
If the pulse is lower in value, resulting in a
negative value, a “0” is used.
This scheme works well for small changes
in signal values between samples.
If changes in amplitude are large, this will
result in large errors.
54
Delta Modulation

The process of delta modulation

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Delta Modulation
Components of Delta Modulation

56
Delta Modulation

DM system. (a) Transmitter. (b) Receiver. 57

Delta Modulation
Distortions in DM system
1.If the slope of analog signal is much higher
than that of approximated digital signal
over long duration,than this difference is
called Slope overload distortion.
2.The difference between quantized signal
and original signal is called as Granular
noise. It is similar to quantisation noise.

58
Delta Modulation

Two types of quantization errors :

Slope overload distortion and granular
noise
59
Delta Modulation
Distortions in DM system
Granular noise occurs when step size▲ is
large relative to local slope m(t).
There is a further modification in this
system,in which step size is not fixed.
That scheme is known as Adaptive Delta
Modulation.

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Adaptive Delta Modulation
A better performance can be achieved if
the value of ▲ is not fixed.
The value of ▲ changes according to the
amplitude of the analog signal.
It has wide dynamic range due to variable
step size.
Also better utilisation of bandwidth as
compared to delta modulation.
Improvement in signal to noise ratio.
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Adaptive Delta Modulation

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Conclusion
The main advantage of these pulse
modulation schemes are better noise
immunity and possibility of use of
repeaters which makes communication
more reliable and error free.

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