ALPHA BREATHING

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 Subject : Basic Electrical Engineering

Prerequisite Knowledge:
Eddy Current
Back EMF
Electric and Magnetic field
Electrical conducting materials – Example : Copper,
Aluminium

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Evocation

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 Historical Perspective
• 1883 : Horace Lamb skin effect in case of spherical

conductors
• 1885 : Oliver Heavside generalised to conductors of any
shape

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 General Objective

Students will be able to understand the concept of skin effect

and proximity effect

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 Specific Objectives

At the end of the class students will be able to:

1. Explain the concept of skin effect in transmission line. (S, E )

2. Illustrate the proximity effect which occurs in transmission lines.

(S, E).

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2D Mapping

Taxonomy of Objectives
Knowledge The Cognitive Process Dimension
Dimension Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create
Factual
Knowledge
Conceptual
1, 2
Knowledge
Procedural
Knowledge
Meta
Cognitive
Knowledge

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Explain the concept of skin effect in transmission line (S,E)

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 Skin effect
• When there is a flow of DC current in a cylindrical
conductor the distribution of current is Uniform
throughout the cross section of a conductor.
• When there is a flow of AC current in a cylindrical
conductor the distribution of current is Not Uniform
throughout the cross section of a conductor.
• As the frequency of alternating current increases, the non
uniformity of distribution becomes more pronounced.
• Magnetic fields within the conductor adjust the
distribution of current forcing it to flow only in a shallow
band underneath the surface of the conductor.

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• The thickness of the conduction band δ is called the
skin depth of the conductor.

• The skin effect is an inductive mechanism related to the

rate of change of magnetic fields within the conductor.
So it becomes increasingly intense at higher frequency.
• Below a certain cutoff frequency ωδ the skin effect is
still present, nut not noticeable level.
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 Cause of skin effect

SHEET OF CONDUCTING MATERIAL

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• When the resistivity(ρ) of the material is high or the material is thin, the eddy
current remain small and the intensity of the secondary field comprises no
more than a small perturbation to the incoming field.
• If the resistivity of the material is low, or the material is thick, the eddy
current increases and the secondary magnetic field grow.
• This magnetic field attenuates the passage of main magnetic flux.
• This occurs only when the magnetic field is perpendicular to the sheet.
• Magnetic lines of force running parallel to the sheet does not create eddy
current.

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• The magnetic field within a conductor decay exponentially as it
moves from the surface of any conductor towards the interior.

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Skin effect within a conductor

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• The thickness of material required to reduce the internal
magnetic filed intensity within the conductor by a factor of 1/e is
called the skin depth of the material.
• For good conductor

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 SKIN EFFECT RESISTANCE RATIO

Where
• Re[RAC] is the real part of the skin effect resistance (Ω/m),
Assuming that operating frequency ω ωδ .
• δ skin depth of the signal conductor at the frequency of
operation(m)
• P = perimeter of a cross- section of the signal conductor
• σ is the conductivity of the signal conductor (S/m)
• kp = is the correction factor by the proximity effect
• kr = is the correction factor determined by the roughness
effect
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Substituting the value of δ

Where
• Ω is the frequency of operation
• μ is the magnetic permeability of the signal
conductor
• For annealed copper at room temperature σ =
5.800×107 S/m
• For Magnetic Material μ = 4Π ×10-7 H//m
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 DC Resistance
• The nonzero resistance of practical transmission lines
dissipates a portion of signal power, causing both attenuation
and distortion in the propagating signals.
• The dc resistance of a transmission line

Where
• a is the cross-sectional area of the conductor (m2)
• ka is the correction factor that accounts for additional DC
resistance of the return path.
• p is the resistivity of the conductor (Ω-m)
• σ is the conductivity of the conductor (S/m)

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 Crossover Frequency
• The crossover frequency ωδ is that frequency where the low –
frequency and high frequency models of series resistance
coincide.

• Where
• ωδ is the frequency (rad/s) where the skin – effect resistance
predicted by equals the DC resistance
• ka is the DC resistance correction factor
• At the cross frequency the actual resistance of a round wire
appears 2.09dB larger than either the DC or skin effect models

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 Formative assessment 1
1. Skin effect increases with increase in
A) frequency
B) Size of the conductor
C) Distance between the two conductors
D) Capacitance of the transmission line

2. The effective resistance of a conductor in the skin effect region is

A) Directly proportional to skin depth
B) Inversely proportional to skin depth
C) Directly proportional to square of skin depth
D) Inversely proportional to square of skin depth

3. Skin effect gets reduced by

A) Solid round conductors
B) Stranded conductors
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Illustrate the proximity effect which occurs in transmission
lines(S,E)

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 Proximity effect
• High frequency current in a round wire flows mostly on the
surface of the wire, but not in a uniform distribution around the
perimeter.
• The magnetic fields from the wire and its associated return
current distribute the current around the perimeter in a slightly
non uniform way

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• This in turn increases the apparent resistance of the
conductor.
• This additional increase in resistance of parallel
conductors is called as proximity effect.
• The proximity effect redistributes the AC current
density around the perimeters of the two wires.
• The proximity effect exerts no net mechanical force on
the wires.
• The proximity effect is an inductive mechanism caused
by changing magnetic fields.

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A changing magnetic filed from a first conductor induces eddy currents on the
surface of the second conductor, changing its distribution of current.

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Cross sectional view of the magnetic field in the vicinity of
two round conductors shows the magnetic lines of force
lie tangent to the surfaces of the conductors.

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 Proximity factor

• The factor kp is defined as the ratio of the actual AC resistance to

the resistance calculated assuming distribution of current
around the perimeter of the conductor and ignoring the
resistance of the return conductor.
• Any conductor well separated from low-resistance return path
has kp ≈ 1.
• Differential configurations have kp ≈ 2 (aslo ka ≈ 2)
• As the conductor and its return path are brought more closely
together, kp increases.
• Whatever the value of kp, at frequencies below ωδ it has no
effect on transmission response.
• Only DC resistance is considered at frequencies below ωδ
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 Formative assessment 2
1. The proximity effect mainly depends on the factors

A) Voltage
B) Diameter
C) Current
D) Length of the line

2. The proximity effect can be reduced by

A) ACSR
B) Solid round conductor
C) Stranded Conductor
D) Aluminum conductor

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 Keywords

• Eddy current, Skin depth, current density, Surface roughness,

conductivity, permittivity

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 3. Discussion

The students will be asked to discuss the relevant topic among

their team/other team/Faculty.
The students those who have not taken part will be noted and
kindle them to do.

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 4. MIND MAP

Depends on skin
depth

Stranded
AC Resistance SKIN Method to reduce Conducto
EFFECT skin effect
rs
EFFECT IN
TRANSMISSION
LINE

Occurs between PROXIMITY

two conductors EFFECT

Proximity Factor
 5. Summary
 Skin effect is a tendency for alternating current ( AC ) to flow
mostly near the outer surface of a solid electrical conductor,
such as metal wire, at frequencies above the audio range.
 The effect becomes more and more apparent as the frequency
increases.
 Skin depth is a measure of how far electrical conduction takes
place in a conductor, and is a function of frequency. 
 When the conductors carry the high alternating voltage then the
currents are non-uniformly distributed on the cross-section area
of the conductor. This effect is called proximity effect.
 The proximity effect results in the increment of the apparent
resistance of the conductor due to the presence of the other
conductors carrying current in its vicinity.

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6.Assessment through Stimulating questions /
Analogy / New ideas and Concepts:

1. Why in dc transmission line there is no skin effect?

2. What happens to skin effect in hollow conductors?

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 8. References:
(Books/Periodicals/Journals):

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XNDk5YcycVM
2. C.L.Wadwa “Power system” New Age Publication.
3. William Steveson ‘ Elements of Power System
Analysis” – Tata Mc Graw Hill Publications.

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