How Securities Are Traded

HOW SECURITIES ARE TRADED
Prof. de Jager
Lecture plan
CAN THE FOLLOWING PRACTICALITIES OF EQUITY

MARKETS GET BETWEEN VALUE AND PRICE?
• How firms issue securities
• IPO
• Bid and offer prices
• Types of orders
• Margin trading
• Short sales
How firms issue securities
• Primary Market
– Firms issue new securities through underwriter to public
– Investors get new securities; firm gets funding
• Secondary Market
– Investors trade previously issued securities among
themselves
How firms issue securities
• Stocks
– IPO
– Seasoned offering
• Bonds
– Public offering
– Private placement
Markets for securities
• Institutional security markets

– Formal, organised exchanges (national or regional)
– Buyer and seller trading through broker
– Only members can trade
– Listing requirements
– Examples: LSE, NYSE, JSE etc.
• Over-the-counter market (OTC)

– Decentralised market
– Unlisted shares (generally no listing requirements)
– Network of dealers buy and sell shares
– Examples: Nasdaq, BJM OTC (discontinued)
• Direct trading between 2 parties

IPO process (investment
banking)
• Underwriting: Investment bank helps the firm to issue
and market new securities
• Prospectus: Describes the issue and the prospects of the

company.
banking)
banking)
• Firm commitment
– investment bank purchases securities from the issuing
company and then resells them to the public.
• Shelf Registration
– SEC Rule 415: Allows firms to register securities and
gradually sell them to the public for two years
• Private placements
– Firm uses underwriter to sell securities to a small group of
institutional or wealthy investors.
– Cheaper than public offerings
– Private placements not traded in secondary markets
banking)
• Process
– Road shows to publicize new offering
– Bookbuilding to determine demand for the new issue
– Degree of investor interest in the new offering provides

valuable pricing information
Bid and offer/ask prices
Bid Offer/ask
Bids are offers to buy. Asked prices represent

In dealer markets, the offers to sell.
bid price is the price at In dealer markets, the
which the dealer is asked price is the price
willing to buy. at which the dealer is
Investors “sell to the willing to sell.
bid”. Investors must pay the
Bid-Asked spread is asked price to buy the
the profit for making a security.
market in a security.
Types of orders
• Market Order: Executed immediately

– Trader receives current market price
• Price-contingent Order:
– Traders specify buying or selling price
– A large order may be filled at multiple prices
Types of orders
Critical thinking: Limit order
vs option
• Limit order does not protect against sudden,

large market movements
• Option does, but more expensive
• Put option to protect against falling sales price;

what limit order?
• Call option to protect against rising price; what

limit order?
Buying on margin
• Borrowing part of the total purchase price of a

position using a loan from a broker.
• Investor contributes the remaining portion.
• Margin refers to the percentage or amount

contributed by the investor.
• You profit when the stock appreciates.

Buying on margin
• Initial margin is set by the Fed

– Currently 50%
• Maintenance margin
– Minimum equity that must be kept in the margin
account
– Margin call if value of securities fall too much
Buying on margin: Example 3.1
Share price $100

60% Initial Margin
40% Maintenance Margin
100 Shares Purchased
Initial Position
Stock $10,000 Borrowed $4,000
Equity $6,000
Stock price falls to $70 per share
New Position
Stock $7,000 Borrowed $4,000
Equity $3,000
Margin% = $3,000/$7,000 = 43%

How far can the stock price fall before a margin

call?
Let maintenance margin = 30%
Equity = 100P - $4000

Percentage margin = (100P - $4,000) / 100P
(100P - $4,000) / 100P = 0.30
Solve to find:
P = $57.14
ASSUMPTION: MARGIN CALL IS ENOUGH TO RESTORE INITIAL MARGIN

Short sales
• Purpose: to profit from a decline in the price of a stock

or security
• Mechanics
– Borrow stock through a dealer
– Sell it and deposit proceeds and margin in an account
– Closing out the position: buy the stock and return to the
party from which it was borrowed
Short sales: Example 3.3
Dot Bomb 1000 Shares

50% Initial Margin
30% Maintenance Margin
$100 Initial Price
Sale Proceeds $100,000

Margin & Equity $50,000
Stock Owed 1000 shares
Short sales: Example 3.3
Dot Bomb falls to $70 per share
Assets: $100,000 (sale proceeds)+ $50,000 (initial

margin)
Liabilities: $70,000 (buy shares)
Equity: $80,000
Profit = ending equity – beginning equity

= $80,000 - $50,000 = $30,000
= decline in share price x number of shares sold short
Short sale margin call
How much can the stock price rise before a margin call?
($150,000* - 1000P) / (1000P) = 30%

P = $115.38
* Initial margin plus sale proceeds

Conclusion
• Primary vs secondary market
• IPO*
• Bid and offer*
• Order types
• Margin trading
• Short sale*
* - I can think of an argument why these items can get

between Value and Price

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HOW SECURITIES ARE TRADED

CAN THE FOLLOWING PRACTICALITIES OF EQUITY

• How firms issue securities

• Bid and offer prices

• Institutional security markets

• Over-the-counter market (OTC)

• Direct trading between 2 parties

• Prospectus: Describes the issue and the prospects of the

– Bookbuilding to determine demand for the new issue

– Degree of investor interest in the new offering provides

Bids are offers to buy. Asked prices represent

• Market Order: Executed immediately

• Limit order does not protect against sudden,

• Option does, but more expensive

• Put option to protect against falling sales price;

• Call option to protect against rising price; what

• Borrowing part of the total purchase price of a

• Investor contributes the remaining portion.

• Margin refers to the percentage or amount

• You profit when the stock appreciates.

• Initial margin is set by the Fed

Share price $100

100 Shares Purchased

Stock price falls to $70 per share

Margin% = $3,000/$7,000 = 43%

How far can the stock price fall before a margin

Let maintenance margin = 30%

Equity = 100P - $4000

ASSUMPTION: MARGIN CALL IS ENOUGH TO RESTORE INITIAL MARGIN

• Purpose: to profit from a decline in the price of a stock

Dot Bomb 1000 Shares

Sale Proceeds $100,000

Dot Bomb falls to $70 per share

Assets: $100,000 (sale proceeds)+ $50,000 (initial

Liabilities: $70,000 (buy shares)

Profit = ending equity – beginning equity

($150,000* - 1000P) / (1000P) = 30%

* Initial margin plus sale proceeds

• Primary vs secondary market

• Bid and offer*

* - I can think of an argument why these items can get

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