6

Fundamental Principles of Traffic

Flow
Chapter 6: Fundamentals of
Traffic Flow
6.1 Elements of Traffic flow
6.2 Flow-Density Relationship
6.3 Shock waves in traffic
streams
6.4 Gap and gap acceptance
6.5 Introduction of Queuing
Theory
Traffic Flow
• is the study of the movement of
individual drivers and vehicles
between two points and the
interactions they make with one
another. Unfortunately, studying
traffic flow is difficult because
driver behavior cannot be predicted
with one-hundred percent certainty.
6.1 TRAFFIC FLOW ELEMENTS
Flow Density
Flow (q) is the equivalent hourly rate at Density (k), sometimes referred to as
which vehicles pass a point on a highway concentration, is the number of
during a time period less than 1 hour. It vehicles traveling over a unit length
can be determined by of highway at an instant in time. The
unit length is usually 1 mile (mi)
thereby making vehicles per mile
(veh/mi) the unit of density

where
n = the number of vehicles passing a point
in the roadway in T sec
q = the equivalent hourly flow
6.1 TRAFFIC FLOW ELEMENTS
n
  Speed  
=
Speed (u) is the distance traveled by a vehicle i=1
during a unit of time.
n
It can be expressed in miles per hour (mi/h), n = number of vehicles passing a point on the highway
kilometers per hour (km/h), or feet per second (ft u = speed of the ith vehicle (ft /sec)
/sec).
= nL
Time mean speed () – is the arithmetic mean of the n
speeds of vehicles passing a point on a highway
during an interval of time.
∑𝒕
 
i=1
n = number of vehicles
t = the time it takes the ith vehicle to travel across a
Space mean speed () - is the harmonic mean of the section of highway (sec)
speeds of vehicles passing a point on a highway u = speed of the ith vehicle (ft /sec)
during an interval of time.
L = length of section of highway (ft)
6.1 TRAFFIC FLOW ELEMENTS
Time Headway Space Headway
Time headway (h) is the difference between the Space headway (d) is the distance between the
time the front of a vehicle arrives at a point on front of a vehicle and the front of the following
the highway and the time the front of the next vehicle and is usually expressed in feet.
vehicle arrives at that same point.
6.2 FLOW-DENSITY
RELATIONSHIPS
•• Flow = density x space mean speed
 
 • Space mean speed= flow x space headway

Where = ave. space headway

 • Density= flow x travel time Other factors:
• characteristics of the roadway
 • Ave space headway = space mean speed x average time headway • characteristics of the vehicle
• characteristics of the driver
 • Ave time headway = ave. travel time x average space headway • environmental factors such as the weather.
Fundamental Diagram of Traffic Flow
 6.3 SHOCK WAVES IN TRAFFIC STREAMS
Imagine that you are walking across a bridge overpass that crosses a
highway. The bridge provides a good vantage point from which you can see
the highway extend into the distance. It is about time for the afternoon rush
hour and traffic is increasing. As you are looking in the distance a vehicle
crashes in the lanes leading away from you. Instantly, a wave of brake lights
appears and flows toward you.
You have just witnessed a shock wave. A shock wave is the boundary
between two density states. In our example, one state was the pre-crash
density. The other state was where drivers were braking, and density was
increasing. The shock wave is the wave of lights flowing toward you.
Types of Shock
Waves

1.frontal stationary
2.backward forming
3.backward recovery
4.rear stationary
5.forward recovery
 Frontal stationary shock waves
• formed when the capacity suddenly
reduces to zero at an approach or
set of lanes having the red
indication at a signalized
intersection or when a highway is
completely closed because of a
serious incident. In this case, a
frontal stationary shock wave is
formed at the stop line of the
approach or lanes that have a red
signal indication.
Backward forming shock waves
• formed when the capacity is reduced
below the demand flow rate resulting
in the formation of a queue upstream
of the bottleneck. The shock wave
moves upstream with its location at
any time indicating the end of the
queue at that time. This may occur at
the approach of a signalized
intersection when the signal indication
is red, as shown in Figure 6.9, or at a
location of a highway where the
number of lanes is reduced.
Backward recovery shock waves
• are formed when the demand
flow rate becomes less than the
capacity of the bottleneck or the
restriction causing the capacity
reduction at the bottleneck is
removed. For example, when the
signals at an approach or set of
lanes on a signalized intersection
change from red to green, the
traffic flow restriction is removed,
and traffic on that approach or set
of lanes is free to move across the
intersection, causing a backward
recovery shock wave
Rear stationary and forward recovery shock waves
• are formed when
demand flow rate
upstream of a
bottleneck is first
higher than the
capacity of the
bottleneck and then the
demand flow rate
reduces to the capacity
of the bottleneck.
 The most important factor a driver
considers in making any one of these
6.4 GAP AND GAP maneuvers is the availability of a gap
ACCEPTANCE between two vehicles that, in the driver’s
judgment, is adequate for him or her to
complete the maneuver.
Following are the important measures that involve the
concept of gap acceptance:
1. Merging is the process by which a vehicle in one traffic stream joins
another traffic stream moving in the same direction, such as a ramp
vehicle joining a freeway stream.
2. Diverging is the process by which a vehicle in a traffic stream leaves that
traffic stream, such as a vehicle leaving the outside lane of an expressway.
3. Weaving is the process by which a vehicle first merges into a stream of
traffic, obliquely crosses that stream, and then merges into a second
stream moving in the same direction; for example, the maneuver required
for a ramp vehicle to join the far side stream of flow on an expressway.
4. Gap is the headway in a major stream, which is evaluated by a vehicle driver
in a minor stream who wishes to merge into the major stream. It is expressed
either in units of time (time gap) or in units of distance (space gap).
5. Time lag is the difference between the time a vehicle that merges into a main
traffic stream reaches a point on the highway in the area of merge and the time
a vehicle in the mainstream reaches the same point.
6. Space lag is the difference, at an instant of time, between the distance a
merging vehicle is away from a reference point in the area of merge and the
distance a vehicle in the mainstream is away from the same point.
6.5 INTRODUCTION TO
QUEUING THEORY

Queuing is the study of traffic behavior

near a certain section where demand
exceeds available capacity.

Common situations:
• boarding a bus or train or plane
• freeway bottlenecks
• shopping checkout
• exiting a doorway at the end of class
• waiting for a computer in the lab, a
hamburger at McDonald’s, or a haircut at
the barber
In transportation
engineering
Queueing can occur at red lights, stop signs,
bottlenecks, or any design-based or traffic-based
flow constriction. When not dealt with properly,
queues can result in severe network congestion or
"gridlock" conditions, therefore making them
something important to be studied and understood
by engineers.
Real Life Causes of Queue Generation
• Geometric Bottlenecks (lane drops, hard curves, hills)
• Accidents and Incidents
• Traffic Signals and Intersection Controls
• At-Grade Crossings with other Modes (Railroad crossings,
drawbridges, etc.)
• Toll Booths
• Ramp Meters
• Inclement Weather
 7

Intersection Design
Chapter 7: Intersection
Design
7.1 Grade Separated Intersection
7.2 At-Grade Intersections
7.3 Design Principles for At-Grade Intersections
7.3.1 Alignment of At-Grade Intersections
7.3.2 Profile of At-Grade Intersections
7.3.3 Curves at At-Grade Intersections
7.3.4 Channelization of At-Grade Intersections
7.3.5 Minimum Pavement Widths of Turning
Roadways at At-Grade Intersections
7.3.6 Sight Distance at Intersections
Intersection
• An intersection is an area, shared by two or more roads, whose main
function is to provide for the change of route directions. Intersections
vary in complexity from a simple intersection, which has only two
roads crossing at a right angle to each other, to a more complex
intersection. at which three or ore roads cross within the same are

Three General Categories:

• Grade-Separated with ramps (commonly known as Interchanges)
• Grade-Separated without ramps
• At-Grade Intersection
 7.1 Grade-Separated with ramps
(commonly known as “Interchanges”)
• Grade separated
intersections cause less
hazard and delay than
grade intersections.
• Route transfer at grade
separations is
accommodated by
interchange facilities
consisting of ramps.
Types of Grade Separated Intersection
• Underpass
• Overpass
• Trumpet Interchange
• Diamond Interchange
• Cloverleaf Interchange
• Partial Cloverleaf Interchange
• Directional Interchange
• Bridged Rotary
 7.2 At-Grade Intersection

• At grade intersection in
which all the exchanges
between the roads take
place on the same plane.
• This requires vehicles to
stop on one roadway
when the other roadway
has the right of way.
Types of At-Grade Intersection
1. T or three-leg intersections
2. Four-leg or cross intersections
3. Multileg intersections
4. Traffic Circles
T Intersections (Three-
leg Intersection)
• This type of intersection is also suitable for use in
rural two-lane highways that carry light traffic.
Mercury Drug Buhangin
 T Intersections (Three-leg Intersection)
• At locations with higher speeds
and turning volumes, which
increase the potential of rear-end
collisions between through
vehicles and turning vehicles,
usually an additional area of
surfacing or flaring is provided,
as shown in the figure. In this
case, the flare is provided to
separate right-turning vehicles
from through vehicles
approaching from the east.
Maa Road &McArthur
Highway Davao City
 T Intersections (Three-leg Intersection)
• In cases where left-turn
volume from a through road
onto a minor road is
sufficiently high but does not
require a separate left-turn
lane, an auxiliary lane may be
provided, as shown in figure.
This provides the space needed
for through vehicles to
maneuver around left-turning
vehicles which must slow
down before making their
turns.
F.S. Dizon st. & CP. Garcia
Highway
 T Intersections (Three-leg Intersection)
• The figure shows a channelized
T intersection in which the two-
lane through road has been
converted into a divided
highway through the
intersection.
• This type of intersection is
suitable for locations where
volumes are high such as high
left-turn volumes from the
through road and high right-turn
volumes onto the minor road.
• An intersection of this type
probably will be signalized.
Roxas Avenue and quezon
boulevard davao city
 Four-Leg Intersections

• The unchanneled intersection

shown in the figure used mainly at
locations where minor or local
roads cross, although it also can be
used where a minor road crosses a
major highway.
Father selga and san pedro st
intersecting mcarthur
highway
 Four-Leg Intersections

• When right-turning movements are

frequent, right-turning roadways,
such as those in the figure, can be
provided. This type of design is
also common in suburban areas
where pedestrians are present
 Four-Leg Intersections
• The layout shown in the figure is
suitable for a two-lane highway
that is not a minor crossroad and
that carries moderate volumes at
high speeds or operates near
capacity
Diversion- bypass road
intersection
 Four-Leg Intersections
• This figure shows a suitable design
for four-lane approaches carrying
high through and turning volumes.
This type of intersection is usually
signalized.
C. Bangoy St. Jacinto
Extension Intersection
 Multi leg Intersections
• Whenever possible, this type of
intersection should be avoided. In
order to remove some of the
conflicting movements from the
major intersection and thereby
increase safety and operation, one or
more of the legs are realigned
Corner sampaguita inn
intersecting McArthur
highway
 Multi leg Intersections
• A similar realignment of a
six-leg intersection is shown
in the figure, resulting in two
four-leg intersections. In this
case, it is also necessary for a
realignment to be made to the
minor road.
Cabaguio, Dacudao, Lapu Jp laurel, corner gmall Crossing toril palangke
lapu St. Intersection intersection
 Traffic Circles
• A traffic circle is a circular
intersection that provides a
circular traffic pattern with
significant reduction in the
crossing conflict points.

3 types:
1. Rotaries,
2. Neighborhood traffic
circles
3. Roundabouts
 Traffic Circles
1. Rotaries - have large diameters that are
usually greater than 300 ft, thereby
allowing speeds exceeding 48.3 kph, with
a minimum horizontal deflection of the
path of the through traffic.
2. Neighborhood traffic circles have
diameters that are much smaller than
rotaries and therefore allow much lower
speeds. Consequently, they are used
mainly at the intersections of local streets,
as a means of traffic calming and/or as an
aesthetic device.
 Traffic Circles
3. Roundabouts have specific defining
characteristics that separate them from other
circular intersections.
These include:
Yield control at each approach
Separation of conflicting traffic
movements by pavement markings or raised
Geometric characteristics of the central
island that typically allow travel speeds of
less than 30 mi/h
Parking not usually allowed within the
circulating roadway.
Roxas ave. , Magsaysay ave.
& Bangot st. Davao city
7.2 Design Principles for
At-Grade Intersection
 Minimize the severity of potential conflicts
among different streams of traffic and between
pedestrians and turning vehicles.
 Provide for the smooth flow of traffic across the
intersection.
 Design should also ensure adequate pavement
widths of turning roadways and approach sight
distances.
 This suggests that at-grade intersections should not
be located at or just beyond sharp crest vertical
curves or at sharp horizontal curves.
 Alignment Profile

7.2 Design
Principles for
Curves Channelization
At-Grade
Intersection
Minimum
Pavement Widths Sight Distance at
of Turning Intersections
Roadways
7.2.1 Alignment of At-Grade Intersections

The best alignment for an at-grade intersection is when the intersecting roads meet
at right or nearly right angles. This alignment is superior to acute-angle alignments.
Much less road area is required for turning at the intersection, there is a lower exposure
time for vehicles crossing the main traffic flow, and visibility limitations (particularly for
trucks) are not as serious as those at acute-angle intersections.
7.2.2 Profile of At-Grade Intersections

• In designing the profile (vertical alignment) at the intersection, a combination of grade

lines should be provided to facilitate the driver’s control of the vehicle. For example,
wherever possible, large changes in grade should be avoided; preferably, grades should
not be greater than 3 percent.
• It is preferable that the grade line of the major highway be continued across the
intersection and that of the minor road be altered to obtain the desired result.
• Any adjustment to a grade line of an approach should be made at a suitable distance
from the intersection in order to provide a smooth junction and proper drainage
Curves at At-Grade Intersections
• The angle of turn, turning speed, design vehicle, and traffic volume are the main factors
governing the design of curves at at-grade intersections. When the turning speed at an
intersection is assumed to be 15 mi/h or less, the curves for the pavement edges are
designed to conform to at least the minimum turning path of the design vehicle
• The three types of design commonly used when turning speeds are 15 mi/h or less are :
 the simple curve (an arc of a circular curve)
 the simple curve with taper,
 the three-centered compound curve (three simple curves joined together and turning in
the same direction)
7.2.4 Channelization of
At-Grade Intersections

• AASHTO defines channelization as

the separation of conflicting traffic
movements into definite paths of
travel by traffic islands or pavement
markings to facilitate the safe and
orderly movements of both vehicles
and pedestrians.
• A traffic island is a defined area
between traffic lanes that is used to
regulate the movement of vehicles
or to serve as a pedestrian refuge.
General Characteristics
of Traffic Islands

1.Curbed Traffic Islands

2.Traffic Islands Formed by
Pavement Markings
3.Islands Formed by
Pavement Edges
• Channelized intersection - A road intersection where raised or colored islands have been
installed to direct vehicles or pedestrians into fixed channels.
A properly channelized intersection will result in increased capacity, enhanced safety, and
increased driver confidence.
Direct the paths of vehicles so that not more than two paths cross at any one point.
Control the merging, diverging, or crossing angle of vehicles.
Decrease vehicle wander and the area of conflict among vehicles by reducing the amount of paved area.
Provide a clear indication of the proper path for different movements.
Give priority to the predominant movements.
Provide pedestrian refuge.
Provide separate storage lanes for turning vehicles, thereby creating space away from the path of through
vehicles for turning vehicles to wait. Provide space for traffic control devices so that they can be readily
seen.
Control prohibited turns.
Separate different traffic movements at signalized intersections with multiple-phase signals.
Restrict the speeds of vehicles.
Channelized Intersection
Minimum Pavement Widths of Turning Roadways
at At-Grade Intersections
 Sight Distance at Intersections
This requires an unobstructed triangular area (sight triangle) that allows
a clear view for drivers on the minor and major roads to see an approaching
vehicle on the crossing road in time to avoid a potential conflict.
There are two types of sight triangles,
1.approach sight triangles
2.departure sight triangles
Approach sight triangles

The approach sight

triangle allows for the
drivers on both the major
roads and minor roads to
see approaching
intersecting vehicles in
sufficient time to avoid a
potential collision by
reducing the vehicle’s
speed or by stopping.
Departure sight triangles

The departure-sight
triangle allows for the
driver of a stopped
vehicle on the minor
road to enter or cross the
major road without
conflicting with an
approaching vehicle
from either direction of
the major road.