STRENGTH OF MASTERIALS -I

Department : CIVIL ENGINEERING

Subject Code : CE303PC

Regulation : R18 B.TECH

Year & Semester : II YEAR I SEMESTER
Prepared by : 1060041
 Strength Of Materials :
• Strength of materials, also called Mechanics of
materials, is a subject which deals with the behavior
of solid objects subject to stresses and strains.

• The study of strength of materials often refers to

various methods of calculating the stresses and strains
in structural members, such as beams, columns, and
shafts.
 Stress (𝝈):

Stress is the applied force or system of

forces that tends to deform a body.
Stress…
•𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑 𝑒𝑓𝐴 𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 =
𝑎
𝐹
𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2
• Dimensional formula of the stress
2𝐴
= 𝐿

∴ = 𝑀𝐿−1𝑇−2

• The SI unit of stress is 𝑁𝑚−2 = 𝑃𝑎

𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙

Same as that of pressure

Types of
•Stress…
The stress developed in a body depends upon
how the external forces are applied over it. On
this basis, there are two types of stress ,

i. Normal Stress

ii. Tangential Stress

 Normal Stress
• Is a stress that occurs when the surface of the body
is loaded by an axial force.

• Normal stress is of two types;

i. Tensile stress
ii. Compressive stress
 Tensile stress:
• Is the stress state leading to expansion; that is,
the length of a material tends to increase in the
tensile direction.

This is an example
of tensile stress
tester (Universal
Testing Machine)
 Compressive stress:
• A force that attempts to squeeze or compress a material.

• Here, the Universal Testing Machine (UTM) is testing

a concrete block.
 Tangential
•A Stress
force acting in a generally horizontal
direction; especially a force that produces
: folding and rove mountain
thrusting
 Types of Strain;
• Since the deforming force can produce three of
deformations (i.e. Change in length, or volume
or shape) in a body, there are three types of
strain;
i. Longitudinal strain
ii. Volumetric strain
iii. Shearing strain
 Longitudinal Strain
• Is when the deforming force produces change
in length.

• 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖 𝑛 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

=
𝑙
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿

𝑙
∴ long = 𝐿
Volumetric Strain
• Is when the deforming force produces change
in the volume.

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∆𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉

∴ vol = ∆𝑉
𝑉
Shearing Strain
• Is when the deforming force produces change
in the shape of the body.

• It is measured by the angle 𝜃 (in radian)

through which a line originally perpendicular to
the fixed face is turned due to the application
of the tangential force.
Shearing Strain …
• Shearing strain = 𝜃
• The figure below is said
= tan 𝜃
to be sheared through ∆𝑥
= �
an angle 𝜃. �
St. Venant’s Principle

Saint-Venant's Principle state that if the forces

acting on a small portion of the surface of an
elastic body are replaced by another statically
equivalent system of forces acting on the same
portion of the surface, this redistribution of
loading produces substantial changes in the
stresses locally but has a negligible effect on the
stresses at distances which are large in
comparison with the linear dimensions of the
surface on which the forces are changed.
STRESS AND STRAIN DIAGRAM
• If a tensile force applied to a uniform bar
of mild steel is gradually increased and the
corresponding extension of the bar is
measured, then provided the applied force
is not too large, a graph depicting these
results is likely to be as shown in Figure.

• Since the graph is a straight line,

extension is directly proportional to the
applied force. (Hooke’s Law)

The point on the graph where extension is no longer proportional

to the applied force is known as the limit of proportionality.
 Limits of elasticity
• As mentioned, limits of proportionality …
Just beyond this point the material can
behave in a non-linear elastic manner, until
the elastic limit is reached.
• If the applied force is large, it is found that
the material becomes plastic and no longer
returns to its original length when the force
is removed.

In short, The value of force up to and within which, the

deformation entirely disappears on removal of the force is
called limit of elasticity
 • When specimen is stressed beyond
Yield limit
elastic limit, strain increases more
rapidly than the stress. Because, sudden
elongation of the specimen takes place,
without appreciable increase in the
stress. This phenomena is known as
yielding of material.

• The portion between upper yield point and lower

yield point is called yield stage.

• The stress corresponding to point of upper yield point is

called yield stress.
Ultimate stress
•Because of the plastic deforms,
the material strain hardens and
further strain beyond lower yield
point requires an increase in
stress.

•The maximum stress reached at

point E is called ultimate stress.

•In other words, Stress

corresponding to the maximum
load taken by the specimen is
called ultimate stress.
 Strain hardening

•The phenomenon of increase in stress from D to E is known as strain

hardening.
•During strain hardening, the extension of the specimen is quite large.
Also if the specimen has mill scale or rust, it will be flaked off.
 Elasticity
• Elasticity is the tendency of solid materials to return
to their original shape after being forces are applied on them.

• When the forces are removed, the object will return to its initial shape
and size if the material is elastic.

• In other words, The deformation disappears completely,

after removal of external forces.

• Steel cables, rubber bands, springs are the examples of the elastic
materials.

• Example : steel
Elastic Limit
• Is the maximum stress from which an elastic
body will recover its original state after the
removal of the deforming force.

• It differs widely for different materials.

• It is very high for a substance like steel and low

for a substance like lead.
 Plasticity
• It is an ability of material to change shape
permanently when subjected to stresses of
intermediate magnitude between those producing
temporary deformation.
• Example : concrete
Hooke’s law
a law stating that the strain in a solid is proportional
to the applied stress within the limit of
proportionality of that solid.
Ductile behavior:
• Ductility is a solid material's ability to deform
under tensile stress.

Copper wires
 Brittle
behavior:
•A material is brittle if, when subjected to stress,
it breaks without insignificant deformation.

• Glass is a good example.

 working stress and factor of safety
• Factor of Safety (FOS) for structural applications is the
ratio of the allowable working unit stress,
allowable stress or working stress. ... The ultimate
strength of a given material divided by an
arbitrary factor of safety, dependant on material and
the use to which it is to be put, gives the
allowable stress
Strain (𝜺)
• Is the change in the size or shape of a body due to
the deforming force.Type equation here.
• i.e.

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛,
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
=
• Strain is Dimensionless hence no unit
Modulus of Elasticity
• Young's modulus, also known as the tensile
modulus or elastic modulus, is a measure of
the stiffness of an elastic material.

• Named after a British Scientist THOMAS

YOUNG
 Modulus of Elasticity
• 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∝
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
Or 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
= 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 = 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚

Its unit is “pa” or N/m2

NB: If the modulus of elasticity of a material is large,

it means a larger stress will produce only a small
strain.
 Types of Modulus of Elasticity
• Corresponding to three types of strain, there are
three moduli of elasticity;

i. Young’s Modulus of elasticity, Y

𝑁 𝑜 𝑟𝑚 𝑎 𝑙
ii. Bulk modulus of elasticity, K = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

iii. Modulus of rigidity, 𝜂 = 𝑆𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

ℎ𝑒 𝑎 𝑟 𝑖 𝑛 𝑔

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Young’s Modulus
(Y)
• It is defined as the ratio of normal stress
to the longitudinal strain.

𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Y =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Y…

• Consider a wire of length L and

area of cross section A fixed at
one end to the rigid, then;
𝐿

• Normal stress, 𝜎 = 𝐴 𝐹
𝑙

• Longitudinal Strain = 𝐿𝑙 𝐹
Y…

𝑌= 𝐹
𝐴 𝐹𝐿
= 𝐴
𝑙
𝐿
𝑙
• If r is the radius of the wire, then 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2

𝐹𝐿
∴𝑌 =
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑙
 Example 1 • Solution
𝐹𝐿
Y=
• A spring 60 cm long is 𝐴𝑙
For the first 0.2
case,
𝑥 9.8 𝑥 0.6
stretched by 2 cm by the Y = 𝐴 𝑥 0.02
application of the load of For the second case,
0.5 𝑥 9.8 𝑥 0.6
Y=
200g. What will be the 𝐴 𝑥 𝑙2
0.2 𝑥 9.8 𝑥 0.6 0.5 𝑥 9.8 𝑥 0.6
length when a load of =
𝐴 𝑥 0.02 𝐴 𝑥 𝑙2
500 g is applied ? 𝑙2 = 0.05 m = 5 cm
∴Total length = 60 + 5 = 65
cm
Example 2
• Four identical hollow cylindrical columns of steel
support a big structure of mass 50,000 Kg. the inner
and outer radii of each column are 30 cm and 40 cm
respectively. Assuming the load distribution to be
uniform, calculate the comprehension strain of each
column. The young’s modulus of steel is 2 𝑥 1011
𝑁𝑚−2
 Solution • The compressional force on each
column is;
• 𝑅1= 30 𝑐𝑚 = 0.3 𝑚,

• 𝑅2= 40 𝑐𝑚 = 0.4 𝑚, 𝐹= 50,000 𝑥 9.8

= 1.225 𝑥 105 𝑁
4

• Y = 2 𝑥 1011 𝑁𝑚−2 • Compressional strain in each

• m = 50,000 Kg, column is:

• g = 9.8 𝑚𝑠−2 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹

𝐴
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑌= 𝑌
Cross-section area (𝑨);
1.225 𝑥 105 𝑁
𝐴 = 𝜋 𝑅2 2 − 𝑅 1 2 =
0.22 𝑚2 𝑥 2 𝑥 1011 𝑁𝑚−2
𝐴 = 𝜋 0.42 − 0.32
∴ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 2.784 𝑥 10−6
𝐴 = 0.22 𝑚 2
Example 3

• Calculate the percentage increase

in length ofa wire of diameter
2.2
stretchedmm
by a of 100 Kg.
load Young’s of wire is
modulus
12.5 𝑥 1010 𝑁𝑚 −2.
 Solution •𝑌= 𝐹𝐿
• 𝑌 = 12.5 𝑥 1010 𝑁𝑚−2 𝐴𝑙
𝐹
• 𝑙 𝐿
=
𝐴
• 𝐹 = 100 𝐾𝑔 𝑥 9.8 𝑚𝑠−2 𝑌
= 980 𝑁 980 𝑁
=
3.8 𝑥 10−6 𝑚 2 𝑥12.5 𝑥 1010 𝑁𝑚−2
•𝐴=𝜋 2
𝑑 = 0.0021
4
𝜋
= 4 (2.2 𝑥 10−3)2 ∴ % increase in length = 𝑙 𝐿 x 100

= 3.8 𝑥 10−6 𝑚 2 0.0021 𝑥 100

= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏%
 Bulk Modulus (K)

• This refers to situations in which the volume

(i.e. bulk) of a substance is changed by the
application of external normal stress.

𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙
Bulk modulus, 𝐾 = 𝑉 𝑜𝑆𝑙𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑚
𝑎 𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟 𝑖 𝑐
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Bulk Modulus…
• Normal stress, 𝜎 = 𝐹
𝐴

• Volumetric strain, 𝜀𝑣𝑜𝑙 = − ∆𝑉 𝑉

• The negative sign is included to indicate that

the volume decreases with an increase in pressure.
𝐹 𝐹𝑉
• ∴𝐾=− 𝐴 =-
∆𝑉 𝐴∆
𝑉
𝑉
i.e. Pressure, p = 𝐹 𝐴 𝑝
∴ 𝑌 = −𝑉 ∆𝑉
 Solution
Example 4
𝑝
𝐾= 𝑉
•A spherical ball ∆𝑉

contracts in volume by 𝑝 = 108 𝑁𝑚 2 ;

0.01% when
∆𝑉 𝑉 = 0.01% = 0.01
100 = 10−4
subjected to a normal
uniform pressure of •K= 10 8
10 −4
108 𝑁𝑚 2 . Find the
∴ 𝐾 = 1 𝑥 1012 𝑁𝑚 2
bulk modulus of the
material.
Shear Modulus or Rigidity Modulus (𝜂)
• This refers to situations in which the shape of
a substance is changed by the application of
tangential stress.

𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜂=
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Shear Modulus…
𝐹
• 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴

• Shear strain = 𝜃 = tan𝜃

Δ𝑥
= �
�

𝐹𝑙
∴ 𝜂=
𝐴∆𝑥
 Example 5
• A rubber cube of side 20 cm has one side fixed
while a tangential force equal to the weight of
400 Kg is applied to the opposite face. Find (i)
shearing strain and (ii) the distance through
which the strained side moves. Given that
modulus of rigidity for rubber is 8 𝑥 106 𝑁𝑚 2 .
Solution
9.8 𝑥 104 𝑁𝑚 − 2
•𝜃=
𝐹 8 𝑥 106 𝑁 𝑚 2
• (i) shear stress =
𝐴 ∴ 𝜃 = 0.0123
400 𝑥 9.8
= (ii) 𝜃 = ∆𝑥
20 𝑥 10−2 2
𝐿

= 9.8 𝑥 104 𝑁𝑚−2 𝐿= 𝜃

𝑥𝐿
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜂=
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 0.0123 x 0.2
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 0.0025 m
𝜃=
𝜂
∴ 𝐿 = 0.25 cm
 POISSON’S RATIO
• When body subjected to axial tensile force, it
elongates and contracts laterally
• Similarly, it will contract and its sides expand
laterally when subjected to an axial compressive force
POISSON’S RATIO…
• Strains of the bar are:

long = δ lat δ’
L =
r
• Early 1800s, S.D. Poisson realized that within elastic
range, ration of the two strains is a constant value,
since both are proportional.

lat
Poisson’s ratio, ν = − 
long
3.6 POISSON’S RATIO…
• ν is unique for homogenous and isotropic material

• Why negative sign? Longitudinal cause

elongation lateral contraction (-ve strain) and

• vice versa
Lateral strain is the same in all lateral (radial) directions

• Poisson’s ratio is dimensionless, 0 ≤ ν ≤ 0.5

Elastic Constants and the relationship between
them

Different elastic constants are as follows

1. Young’s modulus denoted by E

2. Bulk modulus denoted by K
3. Rigidity modulus denoted by G
4. Poisson’s ratio denoted by µ
 1.Young’s Modulus

According to Hooke’s law, when a body is subjected to

tensile stress or compressive stress, the stress applied is
directly proportional to the strain within the elastic limits of
that body. The ratio of applied stress to the strain is constant
and is known as Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity.
 2. Bulk Modulus

When a body is subjected to mutually perpendicular direct stresses

which are alike and equal, within its elastic limits, the ratio of direct
stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is found to be constant.
This ratio is called bulk modulus and is represented by letter “K”. Unit of
Bulk modulus is Mpa.
 3. Rigidity Modulus

When a body is subjected to shear stress the shape of the body gets
changed, the ratio of shear stress to the corresponding shear strain is
called rigidity modulus or modulus of rigidity. It is denoted by the letters
“G” or “C” or “N”. Unit of rigidity modulus is Mpa.
4. Poisson’s Ratio

When a body is subjected to simple tensile stress within its

elastic limits then there is a change in the dimensions of the
body in the direction of the load as well as in the opposite
direction. When these changed dimensions are divided with
their original dimensions, longitudinal strain and lateral strain
are obtained.
The ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is
called Poisson’s ratio. It is represented by the symbol “µ”.
Poisson’s ratio is maximum for an ideal elastic
incompressible material and its value is 0.5. For most of
the engineering materials, Poisson’s ratio lies between
0.25 and 0.33. It has no units.
Relationship between Elastic Constants
•The relationship between Young’s modulus (E), rigidity modulus (G) and Poisson’s ratio (µ) is expressed as :

•The relationship between Young’s modulus (E), bulk modulus (K) and Poisson’s ratio (µ) is expressed as :

•Young’s modulus can be expressed in terms of bulk modulus (K) and rigidity modulus (G) as :
•Poisson’s ratio can be expressed in terms of bulk modulus (K) and rigidity modulus (G) as :
A nylon string has a diameter of 2 mm, pulled by a force of 100 N.
Determine the stress!
Known :
Force (F) = 100 N
Diameter (d) = 2 mm = 0.002 m
Radius (r) = 1 mm = 0.001 m
Wanted : The stress
Solution :
Area :
A = π r2
A = (3.14)(0.001 m)2 = 0.00000314 m2
A = 3.14 x 10-6 m2
The stress :
                                                  
A cord has original length of 100 cm is pulled by a force. The change in
length of the cord is 2 mm. Determine the strain!
Known :
Original length (l0) = 100 cm = 1 m
The change in length (Δl) = 2 mm = 0.002 m
Wanted : The strain
Solution :
The strain :
                                                                   
A string 4 mm in diameter has original length 2 m. The string is pulled
by a force of 200 N. If the final length of the spring is 2.02 m,
determine : (a) stress (b) strain (c) Young’s modulus

stress=15.62x1000000 N/M2
Strain= 0.01
Youngs modulus =1592x1000000 N/M2
A string has a diameter of 1 cm and the original length of 2 m. The string is
pulled by a force of 200 N. Determine the change in length of the string!
Young’s modulus of the string = 5 x 109 N/m2

Ans: 0.26m
Strain Energy
(U)
 What is Strain Energy ?
• When a body is subjected to gradual, sudden or impact load, the
body deforms and work is done upon it. If the elastic limit is not
exceed, this work is stored in the body. This work done or energy
stored in the body is called strain energy.

• Energy is stored in the body during deformation process and this

energy is called “Strain Energy”.

Strain energy = Work done

 Strain energy is defined as the energy stored in a body due to deformation.
The strain energy per unit volume is known as strain energy density and the
area under the stress-strain curve towards the point of deformation. When
the applied force is released, the whole system returns to its original shape.
It is usually denoted by U.

The strain energy formula is given as,

U = Fδ / 2
Where,
δ = deformation,
F = force applied.
When stress σ is proportional to strain ϵ, the
strain energy formula is given by,

Where,
σ = stress
 = strain

V = volume of body

Regarding young’s modulus E, the strain energy formula is
given as,

U = σ2 / 2E × V.
Where,
σ = stress,
E = young’s modulus,
V = volume of body.
When a force of 1000 N is applied on a body, it gets compressed by 1.2 mm.
Determine the strain energy.

Solution:

Given:
Force F = 1000 N,
Compression δ = 1.2 mm
Strain energy formula is given by,
U = Fδ / 2
   = 1000 ×1.2×10−3 / 2
Therefore, U = 0.6 J.
A rod of area 90 mm2 has a length of 3 m. Determine the strain energy if the stress of 300
MPa is applied when stretched. Young’s modulus is given as 200 GPa.

Solution:

Given:
Area A = 90 mm2
Length l = 3m
Stress σ = 300 MPa
Young’s modulus E = 200 GPa
Volume V is given by the formula
V = area*length
  = (90 × 10−6) × 3
V = 270 x 10−6 m3
The strain energy formula is given as,
U = σ2 / 2E× V
  = (300×106)2 / 2 x 200×109 x 270 x 10-6
Therefore, U = 83.3 x 106 J
Therefore, the strain energy of the rod is 83.3 x 106 J
THANK YOU