Renewable Energy Alternatives

This lecture will help you understand:

 The major sources of renewable energy

 Biomass energy
 Hydo energy
 Solar energy
 Wind energy
 Geothermal energy
 Ocean energy
 Hydrogen fuel cells
Central Case Study: Germany Goes Solar

 Germany produces the world’s most solar power

 Yet it is cool and cloudy
 Its feed-in tariff system requires utilities to buy
power from anyone who generates it
 Homeowners and businesses have installed
photovoltaic solar systems to generate energy
Central Case Study: Germany Goes Solar

 German industries are world leaders in “green

technologies”
 Germany produces the most renewable energy per
person of any country
 German leaders see renewables as a great
economic opportunity
Bioenergy

 Bioenergy (biomass energy) = energy obtained

from biomass resources
 Biomass = organic material that makes up
organisms and contains energy that originated with
photosynthesis
 Wood, charcoal, agricultural crops, manure
 It is renewable and releases no net carbon dioxide
 Carbon released by burning was pulled from the
atmosphere to make the biomass
We gain bioenergy from many sources

 There is a diversity of sources and approaches

involved in bioenergy
 This give us many ways to address our energy
challenges
 Over 1 billion people use wood from trees as their
primary source of energy
 Wood is gathered for heating, cooking, and light
We gain bioenergy from many sources

 In developing nations, fuel wood, charcoal, and

manure account for one-third of energy use, and up
to 90% in the poorest nations
 Fuelwood and other traditional biomass sources
constitute 75% of all renewable energy used
worldwide
We gain bioenergy from many sources

 Biomass is only renewable if it is not overharvested

 Overharvesting causes deforestation, erosion, and
desertification
 Heavily populated arid regions are most vulnerable
 When used in cooking, biomass produces indoor air
pollution
 New biomass sources are being developed using a
variety of materials
 Biopower = biomass sources are burned in power
plants, generating heat and electricity
 Biofuels = liquid fuels used to power automobiles
Biopower generates electricity from biomass

 Many types of biomass are combusted to generate

electricity
 Waste products of industries or processes are used
 Woody debris from logging and mills, crop residues,
animal waste, and organic waste from landfills
 Landfill gas is being captured and sold as fuel
 Bioenergy crops are being grown specifically to
generate power
 Fast-growing grasses such as bamboo, switchgrass
 Trees such as specially bred willows and poplars
Combustion strategies and Scales of
production
 Biomass power plants are built like those fired by
fossil fuels
 Many use cogeneration to provide heat and electricity
 Co-firing combines biomass and coal
 Gasification turns biomass to vapor in the absence
of oxygen and can be used to generate methanol
 Pyrolysis produces a liquid fuel
Combustion strategies and Scales of
production
 At small scales, modular biopower systems can use
livestock manure to power a farm or village
 Small household biodigesters work in remote areas
 In Sweden, one-fifth of the energy supply is from
biomass
 The United States has dozens of biomass-fueled
power plants
Benefits and drawbacks

 Biomass power increases efficiency and recycles waste

products
 It reduces CO2 emissions and dependence on imported
fossil fuels
 It is better for health since it produces less sulfur dioxide
 Using biomass resources can support rural economies
and reduce countries’ dependence on imported fuels
 But burning crops deprives the soil of nutrients
 Continued use will deplete the soil
 Relying solely on bioenergy is not a sustainable option
Ethanol can power automobiles

 Liquid fuels from biomass power millions of vehicles

 Ethanol = a biofuel made by fermenting
carbohydrate-rich crops
 Ethanol is widely added to U.S. gasoline to reduce
emissions
 In 2012 in the United States, 50 billion L (13.3 billion
gallons) were made, mostly from corn
Ethanol can power automobiles

 Congress has mandated increased ethanol

production
 Flexible-fuel vehicles run on E-85, a mix of 85%
ethanol, 15% gasoline
 Brazil uses bagasse = crushed sugarcane residue
used to make ethanol
Ethanol is not our most sustainable energy
choice
 Environmental scientists don’t like corn-based
ethanol
 Growing corn impacts ecosystems
 Pesticides, fertilizers, irrigation
 Takes up land that could be left unfarmed
 As more corn is used for ethanol, less is left for food
 The drop in corn availability increased prices
 Mexicans could not afford tortillas, and so they rioted
Ethanol is not our most sustainable energy
choice
 Growing corn uses fossil fuel energy for equipment,
pesticides, and fertilizers
 The EROI ratio for corn ethanol is about 1.3:1, so it
is inefficient; Brazilian bagasse ethanol is more
efficient
Biodiesel powers diesel engines

 Biodiesel = fuel produced from vegetable oil,

cooking grease, or animal fats
 Vehicles can run on 100% biodiesel
 Mixing petrodiesel with 20% biodiesel (called B20) is
common today
Biodiesel powers diesel engines

 Biodiesel reduces emissions, and its fuel economy is

good
 It costs a bit more than petrodiesel
 Using waste oil to make biodiesel is sustainable
 Crops are specially grown (like in ethanol
production)
 Environmental impacts like depleting land,
deforestation
Novel biofuels are being developed

 Algae produce lipids that can be converted to

biodiesel
 Their carbohydrates can be fermented to make
ethanol
 It can be grown in ponds, tanks, or photobioreactors
 Algae grows fast and can be harvested every few
days
 It can use wastewater, ocean water, or saline water
 It can capture CO2 emissions from smokestacks to
speed its growth
Novel biofuels are being developed

 Biofuels from algae are currently expensive

 Cellulosic ethanol = produced from structural plant
material (e.g., corn stalks) that has no food value
 Switchgrass provides ethanol, habitat, and high EROI
Is bioenergy carbon-neutral?

 In principle, biomass energy releases no net carbon

 Photosynthesis removes carbon that is released
when biomass is burned
 Burning biomass is not carbon-neutral:
 If forests are destroyed to plant bioenergy crops
 If we use fossil fuel energy (tractors, fertilizers, etc.)
 The Kyoto Protocol gives incentives to destroy
forests for biofuel crops
 Only emissions from energy use (not land-use
changes) are “counted” toward controlling emissions
Hydroelectric Power

 Next to biomass, provides more renewable energy than

any other source
 Hydropower = uses the kinetic energy of moving water
to turn turbines to generate electricity
 There are three approaches to hydropower
 Storage technique = water stored in reservoirs behind
dams passes through the dam and turns turbines
 The amount of power generated depends on the distance
the water falls and the volume released
 Storage allows a predictable supply of water and electricity
Modern hydropower uses three approaches

 Run-of-river approach = generates electricity

without disrupting the river’s flow
 River water can be diverted through a pipe, passed
through a turbine, and returned to the river
 A small dam that does not impede fish passage can
also be used to divert water
 Useful in areas away from electric grids or where a
large dam is impractical
Modern hydropower uses three approaches

 Pumped storage = water is pumped from a low

reservoir to a high reservoir when energy demand is
low; uses it when demand is high
 Uses energy to pump water
Hydropower is clean and renewable, but also
has impacts
 Hydropower has three clear advantages over fossil
fuels for producing electricity:
 It is renewable: as long as precipitation fills rivers we
can use water to turn turbines
 It is efficient: it is thought to have an EROI (energy
returned on energy invested) of 100:1 or more
 It is clean: no carbon dioxide or other pollutants are
emitted into the atmosphere
 There are negative impacts:
 Fossil fuels are used in constructing dams
 Large reservoirs release the greenhouse gas methane
Hydropower is clean and renewable, but also
has impacts
 Damming rivers destroys wildlife habitats
 Upstream areas are submerged
 Downstream areas are starved of water
 Natural flooding cycles are disrupted
 Downstream floodplains don’t get nutrients
 Downstream water is shallower and warmer
 Periodic flushes of cold reservoir water can kill fish
 Dams block passage of fish, fragmenting the river
and reducing biodiversity
Hydroelectric power is widely used

 Hydropower accounts for 16% of the world’s

electricity production
 Nations with large rivers and economic resources to
build dams have used hydropower for their
development
 Sweden receives nearly 50% of its electricity and 11%
of its total power from hydropower
Hydroelectric power is widely used

 However, many countries have dammed their large

rivers
 People want some rivers left undammed
 The U.S. government built dams to employ people
and help end the economic depression of the 1930s
 Engineers exported their dam-building techniques to
developing countries
Hydropower’s expansion is limited

 There are massive dam construction projects going

on
 China’s Three Gorges Dam is the world’s largest
dam
 Displaced 1 million people
 Generates as much electricity as dozens of coal-fired
or nuclear plants
Hydropower’s expansion is limited

 Most of the world’s large rivers have already been

dammed, limiting potential expansion
 98% of the appropriate rivers in the United States
have already been dammed
 People have grown aware of the ecological impact
of dams and resist more construction
 Developing nations with rivers will increase
hydropower
“New” Renewable Energy Sources

 The economic, social, and environmental impacts of

fossil fuels are intensifying
 “New” renewables are a group of alternative energy
sources that include the sun, wind, geothermal heat,
and ocean water
 They are referred to as “new” because:
 They are just beginning to be used on a wide scale
 Their technologies are still in a rapid phase of
development
 They will play a much larger role in our future energy
use
New renewable sources are growing fast

 New renewables provide energy for electricity,

heating, fuel for vehicles
 New renewables provide only 1% of energy
 Only 20% of our electricity is from renewable
sources
 Four-fifths of that is from hydropower
New renewable sources are growing fast

 Nations vary in the renewable sources they use

 Most U.S. renewable energy comes from biomass
and hydropower
 Growth is faster than for conventional energy
sources
 Wind power is growing at 50% per year
 Since these sources began at low levels, it will take
time to build them up
The new renewables offer advantages

 Expansion of new renewables has been driven by:

 Growing concerns over diminishing fossil fuel
supplies
 Environmental and health impacts of burning fossil
fuels
 Advances in technology making it easier and cheaper
The new renewables offer advantages

 Benefits of the new renewables include:

 Alleviating air pollution and greenhouse gas
emissions
 They are inexhaustible, unlike fossil fuels
 They help diversify a country’s energy economy
 They create jobs, income, and taxes, especially in
rural areas
 Green-collar jobs = design, installation,
maintenance, and management of renewable
energy technologies
Policy and investment can accelerate our
transition
 We can not wholly convert to renewable energy overnight
 The infrastructure is not in place to transfer energy from
renewable sources cheaply and efficiently
 Stimulus packages during the 2008–2009 economic
downturn often provided funds for green energy programs
 Most renewable energy is more expensive than
nonrenewables
 Renewable use has grown anywhere government policies
supported it
 Financial incentives and mandated goals have helped
Policy and investment can accelerate our
transition
 Government support often results in private sector
investment
 Advances in technology have accompanied national
or state policy that encourages renewable energy
sources
 Government policies regarding renewable sources
have been erratic; therefore, so have the economics
Policy and investment can accelerate our
transition
 Subsidies have overwhelmingly favored
nonrenewables
 Oil and gas have received 75 times more subsidies
than new renewable energy sources in total
 In the earliest years of each energy source, oil, gas,
and nuclear received far more in subsidy support than
new renewables have
Solar Energy

 The sun provides energy for Earth’s processes

 Each square meter of Earth receives about 1
kilowatt of solar energy = energy from the sun
 17 times the energy of a lightbulb
Solar Energy

 Passive solar energy collection = buildings are

designed to maximize absorption of sunlight in
winter
 Overhangs block sunlight to keep cool in summer
 Uses thermal mass = materials that store heat such
as straw, brick, or concrete
 Active solar energy collection = uses technology
to focus, move, or store solar energy
We can collect solar using passive or active
methods
 Flat plate solar collectors = dark-colored, heat-absorbing
metal plates mounted on rooftops
 Water, air, or antifreeze runs through the collectors,
transferring heat throughout the building
 Heated water is stored and used later
 200 million households heat water with solar collectors
 Only 1.5 million in the United States and mostly for pools
 They can be used in isolated locations
 For heating, cooling, water purification
 It is not restricted to wealthy, sunny regions
Concentrating solar rays magnifies energy

 Focusing solar energy on a single point magnifies its

strength
 Solar cookers = simple, portable ovens that use
reflectors to focus sunlight onto food
 Concentrated solar power (CSP) = technologies
that concentrate solar energy
 The most widespread is the trough approach
 Uses curved mirrors that focus sunlight on synthetic
oil in pipes
 The heated oil creates steam that drives turbines to
produce electricity
Concentrating solar rays magnifies energy

 “Power tower”: numerous mirrors concentrate

sunlight onto a receiver on top of a tall tower
 Heat is transported by air or fluids (molten salts) to a
steam-driven generator to create electricity
 Lenses or mirrors track the sun’s movement
 CSP facilities must be located in a sunny region
 CSP facilities on just 260 km2 (100 mi2) in Nevada
could generate enough electricity for the entire U.S.
economy
 Some people are wary of the impacts of the large-
scale development needed for most CSPs to work
Photovoltaic cells generate electricity directly

 Photovoltaic (PV) cells = cells that convert sunlight

directly into electrical energy
 The photovoltaic (photoelectric) effect occurs when
light hits the PV cell and hits a plate made of silicon
 Electrons are released by the silicon and are attracted
to the opposite plate
 Wires connecting the two plates let electrons flow,
creating an electric current
 Small PV cells are in watches and calculators
 On roofs, PV cells are arranged in modules, which
comprise panels, which can be gathered into arrays
Photovoltaic cells generate electricity directly

 Thin-film solar cells = PV materials that are

compressed into thin sheets
 Less efficient but cheaper
 Can be incorporated into roofing shingles, roads, etc.
 PV-generated energy can be stored in batteries
Photovoltaic cells generate electricity directly

 Net metering = process in which the value of the

power the consumer provides is subtracted from the
monthly utility bill
 Producers of PV electricity can sell their power to a
utility
 Feed-in tariffs pay producers more than the market
price of power, so power producers turn a profit
Solar energy is expanding

 Active solar dates to the 19th century but was

pushed to the sidelines as fossil fuels dominated our
economy
 Funding has been erratic for research and
development
 Largely because of a lack of investment, solar
energy contributes only a miniscule part (0.22%) of
U.S. energy production and just 0.1% of electricity
production
 But worldwide solar energy use has increased 30%
per year over the last 4 decades
Solar energy is expanding

 Solar energy is attractive in developing nations,

where hundreds of millions don’t have electricity
 They are rich in sun, but poor in infrastructure
Solar energy is expanding

 PV technology is the fastest growing power generation

technology today
 China leads the world in PV cell production
 The United States ranks fifth and accounts for only 4%
 Federal tax breaks and state incentives should help boost
U.S. PV production
 Chinese support of its solar industry has caused
overproduction, with firms often selling at a loss and
lowering prices worldwide
 Solar energy use should increase, due to falling prices,
improved technologies increasing efficiency, and
economic incentives
Solar energy offers many benefits

 Solar technologies use no fuels, are quiet and safe,

contain no moving parts, and require little
maintenance
 An average unit can produce energy for 20–30 years
 They allow local, decentralized control over power
 Do not need to be near the power grid
Solar energy offers many benefits

 Developing nations can use solar cookers to replace

the gathering of firewood, decreasing environmental
and social stress
 Low cost ($2–10 each) makes them available to
impoverished areas
 Most PV owners can sell excess electricity to their
local utility through feed-in tariffs or net metering
Solar energy offers many benefits

 Green-collar jobs are being created

 PV technology creates the most jobs per unit energy
 800,000 jobs worldwide
 They reduce the emission of greenhouse gases and air
pollution compared to fossil fuels
 Fossil fuel energy is used in manufacturing PV cells
 No emissions are generated during use
 A 5-kilowatt PV system in a home in Fort Worth would
provide half its power needs, save $681/year, and prevent
5 tons of CO2 emissions/year
 The same system in cloudy Seattle would still prevent 3.5
tons of CO2 emissions/year
Location, timing, and cost can be drawbacks

 Not all regions are sunny enough to provide enough

power, given current technology
 However, Germany receives little sun and it is the
world leader in solar power
 Solar power is an intermittent source
 Daily and seasonal variation can limit stand-alone
systems
 They need storage (e.g., batteries) and backup power
 Pumped storage hydropower is sometimes used to
supplement solar power production
Location, timing, and cost can be drawbacks

 Up-front costs are high

 This makes solar power the most expensive way
to produce electricity
 It may take a homeowner 20 years to break even
 Fossil fuels and nuclear energy are favored over
solar
 Government subsidies and not including their
external costs have made them cheaper
Location, timing, and cost can be drawbacks

 Prices are declining and technologies are improving

 PV cells are showing up to 20% efficiency
compared with 6% when first produced in the
1950s
 Efficiencies of up to 40% have been achieved in
lab research
Wind Power

 Wind power = energy derived from movement of air

 An indirect form of solar energy
 Wind turbines = devices that convert wind’s kinetic
energy into electric energy
 Windmills have been used for 800 years to pump water
and grind grain
 The first wind turbine for electrical generation was built in
the 1880s in Cleveland, Ohio
 After the 1973 oil embargo, governments funded
research and development
 Moderate funding boosted technological progress
Wind turbines convert kinetic energy to
electrical energy
 Wind blowing into a turbine turns the blades of a
rotor, which rotate machinery inside a compartment
(called a nacelle) atop a tower
 Towers average 80 m (260 ft) tall
 The higher the tower, the more it minimizes
turbulence and maximizes wind speed
 Wind farms = turbines erected in groups of up to
hundreds of turbines
 Turbines yaw—they rotate in response to changes in
wind direction, ensuring they always face into the
wind
Wind turbines convert kinetic energy to
electrical energy
 Turbines are designed to harness wind efficiently
 Different turbines turn in different wind conditions: some in
a gentle breeze, others only in strong winds
 Slight differences in wind speed yield significant
differences in power output
 Energy content increases as the square of its velocity—if a
wind’s velocity doubles, its energy quadruples
 Increased speeds cause more air molecules to pass
through the turbine, increasing power by the wind velocity
cubed—if wind velocity doubles, turbine power output
rises eightfold
Wind power is growing fast

 Wind power provides just a small proportion of the

world’s power needs, but wind power has doubled
every 3 years in recent years
 Five nations produce 75% of the world’s wind power
 But dozens of nations now produce wind power
Offshore sites hold promise

 Wind speeds are 20% greater over water than over

land
 Also less air turbulence over water
 Costs to erect and maintain turbines in water are
higher
 But more power is produced, and it is more profitable
Offshore sites hold promise

 Currently, turbines are limited to shallow water

 Future towers may be on floating pads in deeper
waters
 Over 1800 wind turbines are operating in 65 wind
farms in the waters of 10 European countries
 The first U.S. offshore wind farm will have 130
turbines and be located 8 km (5 miles) off Cape
Cod, Massachusetts
Wind power has many benefits

 Wind produces no emissions once installed

 Prevents the release of CO2, SO2, NOx, mercury
 It is more efficient than conventional power sources
 EROI = 20:1 (better than most other energy sources)
 Turbines use less water than conventional power
plants
Wind power has many benefits

 Wind power can be used on many scales

 Local areas can become more self-sufficient
 Farmers and ranchers can lease their land
 Produces extra revenue while still using the land
 Advancing technology is also reducing the cost of
wind farm construction
 Has created 85,000 U.S. jobs and 700,000 globally
Wind power has some downsides

 We have no control over when wind will occur

 Limitation on relying on it for electricity
 Need to combine it with other generation
technologies, or batteries or hydrogen fuel can store
the energy
Wind power has some downsides

 Wind sources are not always near population

centers that need energy
 Mountainous regions tend to be the best locations for
wind generation
 The U.S. Great Plains are also a good location
 Transmission networks need to be expanded to
deliver the wind-generated power to distant
population centers
Geothermal Energy

 Geothermal energy = thermal energy from beneath

Earth’s surface
 Radioactive decay of elements under extremely high
pressures deep inside the planet generates heat
 Heat rises through magma, fissures, and cracks or heats
groundwater, which erupts as geysers or submarine
hydrothermal vents
 Geothermal power plants use hot water and steam for
heating homes, drying crops, and generating electricity
 Globally, one-third of geothermal energy is used for
electricity, the other two-thirds for direct heating
Geothermal power has benefits and limitations

 Geothermal power reduces greenhouse gas emissions

 Each megawatt of geothermal power prevents release of 7
million kg (15.5 million lb) of CO2 each year
 But it may not be sustainable if the plant withdraws water
faster than it can be recharged (water or wastewater can
be injected into the ground to replenish the supply)
 Patterns of geothermal activity in the crust may shift,
cutting off the heated water
 Water of many hot springs has salts and minerals that
corrode equipment and pollute the air
 It is limited to areas where the energy can be trapped
Enhanced geothermal systems might widen our
reach
 Areas that lack heated water may still be used through
enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) = deep holes
are drilled into dry rock and the rock is fractured
 Cold water is pumped in and is heated by natural thermal
energy
 It is withdrawn to generate electricity
 It could be used in many locations
 Heat resources below the United States could power the
Earth’s demands for millennia
 But EGS can trigger minor earthquakes
 Our use of geothermal power will stay localized
Heat pumps make use of temperature
differences above and below ground
 Soil temperatures vary from season to season less
than air temperatures
 Soil absorbs and releases heat more slowly
 Warmth and cold do not penetrate far belowground
 Ground-source heat pumps (GSHPs) =
geothermal pumps that heat buildings in the winter
by transferring heat from the ground to the building
 In summer, heat is transferred from the building to the
ground
 Because heat is only being moved, not generated,
GSHPs are very efficient
We can harness energy from tides, waves, and
currents
 Kinetic energy from the natural motion of ocean
water can generate electrical power
 Wave energy = the motion of waves is harnessed
and converted from mechanical energy into
electricity
 Many designs exist, but few have been adequately
tested
 Some designs are for offshore facilities and involve
floating devices that move up and down the waves
 Wave energy is greater at deep ocean sites
 But transmitting electricity to shore is very expensive
We can harness energy from tides, waves, and
currents
 Some designs work along coastlines
 One funnels waves into elevated reservoirs
 Another uses waves to push air into and out of
chambers, turning turbines
 Kinetic energy from the natural motion of ocean
water can generate electrical power
 The rising and falling of ocean tides twice each day
move large amounts of water
 Differences in height between low and high tides are
especially great in long, narrow bays
We can harness energy from tides, waves, and
currents
 Tidal energy = energy harnessed from dams that
cross the outlets of tidal basins
 Water is trapped behind gates
 Outgoing tides turn turbines to generate electricity
 Tidal stations release few or no pollutant emissions
 But they can affect the ecology of estuaries and tidal
basins
 Another design uses the motion of ocean currents,
such as the Gulf Stream
 Devices similar to underwater turbines have been
erected off of Europe to test this technology
The ocean stores thermal energy

 Each day, tropical oceans absorb solar radiation

equal to the heat content of 250 billion barrels of oil
 Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) = uses
temperature differences between the ocean’s warm
surface water and cold deep water
The ocean stores thermal energy

 Closed cycle approach = warm surface water

evaporates chemicals, which spin turbines to
generate electricity
 Cold water condenses the gases to be reused
 Open cycle approach = warm surface water is
evaporated in a vacuum and its steam turns turbines
 Costs are high, and no facility operates
commercially yet
Hydrogen

 Energy produced by the new renewables is not

easily stored in large quantities for use when needed
 This is why most vehicles rely on gasoline from oil
 Fuel cells and their fuel, hydrogen, promise a way to
store considerable quantities of energy cleanly and
efficiently
 Hydrogen is an energy carrier, not a primary source
 Like electricity and batteries, its energy can be
converted for use at a later time in a different location
Some yearn for a “hydrogen economy”

 A hydrogen economy would provide a clean, safe,

and efficient energy system
 Electricity produced from intermittent sources (sun,
wind) would be used to produce hydrogen
 Fuel cells (essentially, hydrogen batteries) would
use hydrogen to produce electricity to power
vehicles, homes, computers, cell phones, etc.
 Governments are funding research into hydrogen
and fuel cell technology
 Iceland and Germany have converted their public
buses to run on hydrogen
Hydrogen fuel may be produced from water or
from other matter
 Hydrogen gas does not exist freely on Earth
 Energy is used to force molecules to release
hydrogen
 Electrolysis = electricity splits hydrogen from water
2H2O  2H2 + O2
 It may cause pollution, but only if the source of energy
for the electricity produces pollution
Hydrogen fuel may be produced from water or
from other matter
 The environmental impact of hydrogen production
depends on the source of hydrogen
 Using methane, biomass, or fossil fuels produces the
greenhouse gas CO2
CH4 + 2H2O  4H2 + CO2
Fuel cells produce electricity by joining
hydrogen and oxygen
 Once isolated, hydrogen gas can be used as a fuel
to produce electricity within fuel cells
 The chemical reaction is the reverse of electrolysis
2H2 + O2  2H2O
 The movement of the hydrogen’s electrons from one
electrode to the other creates electricity
Hydrogen and fuel cells have costs and
benefits
 Need massive and costly development of infrastructure
 Some research suggests that leakage of hydrogen can
deplete stratospheric ozone
 We will never run out of hydrogen
 It can be clean and nontoxic to use
 It may produce few greenhouse gases and pollutants
 If kept under pressure, it is no more dangerous than
gasoline in tanks
 Cells are typically 35–70% energy efficient (up to 90%)
 Fuel cells are silent and nonpolluting and won’t need to
be recharged
Conclusion

 Biomass energy sources include wood and newer

biofuels
 They can be carbon-neutral but are not strictly
renewable
 Hydropower is a renewable, pollution-free alternative
 But it is nearing maximal use and can involve
substantial ecological impacts
Conclusion

 The concern over global climate change and the health

impacts, security risks of dependence, and decline of fossil
fuels have convinced many people we need to shift to
renewable energy
 Renewable sources include solar, wind, geothermal, and
ocean energy sources and hydrogen fuel
 Renewable energy sources have been held back by
inadequate funding and by artificially cheap prices for
nonrenewable resources
 But there is hope that we can shift to renewable energy
 The limit on environmental impact will be based on how soon,
how quickly, and how carefully we make the switch