Chapter 38

Light Quanta, Matter Waves

The sub-atomic world behaves very differently from the world of our ordinary
experiences. Quantum physics deals with this strange world and has
successfully answered many questions in the sub-atomic world, such as:
Why do stars shine? Why do elements order into a periodic table? How do
we manipulate charges in semiconductors and metals to make transistors
and other microelectronic devices? Why does copper conduct electricity but
glass does not?

In this chapter we explore the strange reality of quantum mechanics.

Although many topics in quantum mechanics conflict with our common
sense world view, the theory provides a well-tested framework to describe
the sub-atomic world.

38- 1
 The Photon, the Quantum of Light
Quantum physics:
•Study of the microscopic world
• Many physical quantities found only in certain minimum (elementary)
amounts, or integer multiples of those elementary amounts
•These quantities are "quantized"
•Elementary amount associated with this a quantity is called a "quantum"
(quanta plural)

Analogy example: 1 cent or $0.01 is the quantum of U.S. currency

Electromagnetic radiation (light) is also quantized, with quanta called photons.

This means that light is divided into integer number of elementary packets
(photons).
38- 2
 The Photon, the Quantum of Light, cont'd
So what aspect of light is quantized? Frequency and wavelength still can be
any value and are continuously variable, not quantized
c
f  where c is the speed of light 3x108 m/s

However, given light of a particular frequency, the total energy of that radiation
is quantized with an elementary amount (quantum) of energy E given by:

E  hf (photon energy)

Where the Planck constant h has a value:

h  6.63  1034 J  s  4.14 10 15 eV  s

The energy of light with frequency f must be an integer multiple of hf. In the
previous chapters we dealt with such large quantities of light, that individual
photons were not distinguishable. Modern experiments can be performed with
single photons. 38- 3
 The Photoelectric Effect
When short wavelength light
illuminates a clean metal surface,
electrons are ejected from the metal.
These photoelectrons produce a
photocurrent.

First Photoelectric Experiment:

Photoelectrons stopped by stopping
voltage Vstop. The kinetic energy of
the most energetic photoelectrons is
K max  eVstop
Kmax does not depend on the intensity
of the light!
→ single photon ejects each electron
38- 4
Fig. 38-1
 The Photoelectric Effect, cont’d
Second Photoelectric
Experiment:
Photoelectric effect does not
occur if the frequency is below
ab the cutoff frequency fo, no
slope  matter how bright the light!
bc

→ single photon with energy

greater than work function 
ejects each electron

Fig. 38-2

38- 5
 The Photoelectric Effect, cont’d
Photoelectric Equation
The previous two experiments can be summarized by the
following equation, which also expresses energy conservation

hf  K max   (photoelectric equation)

h 
Using K max  eVstop  Vstop   f 
e e

equation for a straight with slope h/e and intercept –/e

h ab 2.35 V  0.72 V
slope     4.1  10 -15
V s
e bc  11.2 10  7.2 10  Hz
14 14

Multiplying this result by

h   4.110 V  s   1.6  10-19 C   6.6 10 -34 J  s

e -15
38- 6
 Photons Have Momentum
hf h
p = (photon momentum)
c 

Fig. 38-3

Fig. 38-4
38- 7
 Photons Have Momentum, Compton shift
Conservation of energy hf  hf ' K

Since electron may recoil at speed approaching c

we must use the relativistic expression for K

K  mc 2    1 where  is the Lorentz factor

1
 
1  v c
2

Substituting K in the energy conservation equation

f c 
h h
hf  hf ' mc    1
2
   mc    1
p   mv  '
h h
Fig. 38-5 Conservation of momentum along x  cos    mv cos 
 '
h
Conservation of momentum along y 0  sin    mv sin  38- 8
'
 Photons Have Momentum, Compton shift cont’d
Want to find wavelength shift    ' 
Conservation of energy and momentum provide 3 equations for 5 unknowns
(, ’, v, , and ), which allows us to eliminate 2 unknowns v and .

h
   1-cos  (Compton shift)
mc

, ’, and , can be readily measured in the Compton experiment

h
is the Compton wavelength and depends on 1/m of the scattering particle
mc
Loose end: Compton effect can be due to scattering from electrons bound
loosely to atoms (m=me→ peak at ≠ 0) or electrons bound tightly to atoms
(m ≈ matom >>me → peak at ≈ 0) 38- 9
 Light as a Probability Wave
How can light act both as a wave and as a particle (photon)?

Standard Version: photons sent

through double slit. Photons detected
(1 click at a time) more often where the
classical intensity:
2
Erms
I is maximum.
c0
The probability per unit time
interval that a photon will be
detected in any small volume
centered on a given point is
proportional to E2 at that point.
Fig. 38-6
Light is not only an electromagnetic wave but also a probability wave for
38-10
detecting photons
 Light as a Probability Wave, cont'd

Single Photon Version: photons sent through double slit one at a time. First
experiment by Taylor in 1909.

1. We cannot predict where the photon will arrive on the screen.

2. Unless we place detectors at the slits, which changes the experiment (and
the results), we cannot say which slit(s) the photon went through.
3. We can predict the probability of the photon hitting different parts of the
screen. This probability pattern is just the two slit interference pattern that we
discussed in Ch. 35.

The wave traveling from the source to the screen is a probability wave, which
produces a pattern of "probability fringes" at the screen.

38-11
 Light as a Probability Wave, cont'd

Single Photon, Wide-Angle Version: More recent experiments (Lai and Diels
in 1992) show that photons are not small packets of classical waves.

1. Source S contains molecules that emit

photons at well separated times.
2. Mirrors M1 and M2 reflect light that was
emitted along two distinct paths, close to
180o apart.
3. A beam splitter (B) reflects half and
transmits half of the beam from Path 1, and
does the same with the beam from Path 2.
Fig. 38-7 4. At detector D the reflected part of beam
2 combines (and interferes) with the
transmitted part of beam 1.
5. The detector is moved horizontally, changing the path length difference between
Paths 1 and 2. Single photons are detected, but the rate at which they arrive at the
detector follows the typical two slit interference pattern.
Unlike the standard two slit experiment, here the photons are emitted in 38-12
nearly opposite directions! Not a small classical wavepacket!
 Light as a Probability Wave, cont'd

Conclusions from the previous three versions/experiments:

1. Light generated at source as photons.

2. Light absorbed at detector as photons.

3. Light travels between source and detector as a probability wave.

38-13
 Electrons and Matter Waves
If electromagnetic waves (light) can behave like particles (photons), can
particles behave like waves?
h
 (de Broglie wavelength) where p is the momentum of the particle
p

Electrons


38-14
Fig. 38-9
 Waves and Particles
Consider a particle that is detected at Point I and then is detected at Point F.
Can we think of this as the propagation of a wave. Imagine any non-straight
path connecting I and F. This path will have a neighboring path that will
destructively interfere with it. For the straight (direct) path connecting I and F
the neighboring paths will constructively interfere to reinforce the probability of
traveling in a straight line. Of course, if the particle is charged and in the
presence of an electric or magnetic field, the interference conditions on
neighboring paths will change and the path may become curved.

Fig. 38-11
38-15
 Schrödinger’s Equation
For light E(x, y, z, t) characterizes its wavelike nature, for matter the wave
function Ψ(x, y, z, t) characterizes its wavelike nature.

Like any wave, Ψ(x, y, z, t) has an amplitude and a phase (it can be shifted
in time and or position), which can be conveniently represented using a
complex number a+ib where a and b are real numbers and i2 = -1.
On the situations that we will discuss, the space and time variables can be
grouped separately:

  x, y, z , t     x, y, z , t  e  i t

where =2f is the angular frequency of the matter wave.

38-16
 Schrödinger’s Equation, cont’d
What does the wave function mean? If the matter wave reaches a particle
detector that is small, the probability that that a particle will be detected there
in a specified period of time is proportional to Iψ|2, where Iψ| is the absolute
value (amplitude) of the wave function at the detector’s location.

The probability per unit time

interval of detecting a particle in a
small volume centered on a given
point in a matter wave is
proportional to the value Iψ|2 at that
point.
Since ψ is typically complex, we obtain Iψ|2 by multiplying ψ by its complex
conjugate ψ* . To find ψ* we replace the imaginary number i in ψ with –i
wherever it occurs.

   *   a  ib   a  ib 
2

38-17
 Schrödinger’s Equation, cont’d
How do we find (calculate) the wave function? Matter waves are described
by Schrödinger’s equation. Light waves a described Maxwell’s equations,
matter waves are described by Schrödinger’s equation.
For a particle traveling in the x direction through a region in which forces on
the particle cause it to have a potential energy U(x), Schrödinger’s equation
reduces to:
d 2 8 2 m
2
+ 2  E - U  x   =0 (Schrodinger's
 eq. in 1D)
dx h
where E is the total energy of the particle.
If U(x) = 0, this equation describes a free particle. In that case the total
energy of the particle is simple its kinetic energy (1/2)mv2 and the equation
becomes:
2
d  8 m  mv 2 
2 2
d 2  p
2
+ 2   =0  2 +  2   =0
dx h  2  dx  h 38-18
 Schrödinger’s Equation, cont’d
In the previous equation, since =h/p, we can replace the p/h with 1/which
in turn is related to the angular wave number k=2/

d 2
2
+k 2
 =0 (Schrodinger's
 eq., free particle)
dx

The most general solution is:

  x  =Aeikx  Be ikx

Leading to:

  x, t     x  e  i t =  Aeikx  Be  ikx  e it

i  kx  t   i  kx  t 
 Ae  Be
38-19
 Finding the Probability Density Iψ|2
ei = cos  i sin  and e i = cos   i sin 
Choose arbitrary constant B=0 and let A= ψ0
  x  = 0eikx ikx 2
  0  e ikx 2
2 2
 =  0e

e ikx 2
  eikx   eikx  *  eikx e ikx  eikx ikx  1

ikx 2
   0  1   02 (a constant)
2 2 2
 =  0e

38-20
Fig. 38-12
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
In the previous example, the momentum (p or k) in the x-direction was exactly
defined, but the particle’s position along the x-direction was completely
unknown. This is an example of an important principle formulated by
Heisenberg: Measured values cannot be assigned to the position r and the
momentum p of a particle simultaneously with unlimited precision.

x  px   where   h 2
y  p y   (Heisenberg's uncertainty principle)
z  pz  

Note that if px  p y  pz  0

Then x  , y  , and z  
38-21
 Barrier Tunneling
As puck slides up hill, kinetic energy K is converted to gravitational potential
energy U. If the puck reaches the top its potential energy is Ub. The puck can
only pass over the top if its initial mechanical energy E> Ub. Otherwise the puck
eventually stops its climb up left side of hill and slides back top left. For
example, if Ub=20 J and E=10 J, the puck will not make pass over the hill, which
acts as a potential barrier.

Fig. 38-13

38-22
 Barrier Tunneling, cont’d
What about an electron approaching an
electrostatic potential barrier?

Fig. 38-14 Fig. 38-15

Due to the nature of quantum
mechanics, even if E< Ub there is a
non-zero transmission probability
(transmission coefficient T) that the
electron will get through (tunnel) to the
other side of the electrostatic potential
barrier! Fig. 38-16
2 bL 8 m  U b  E 
2

T e where b 
h2 38-23
 The Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)
As tip is scanned laterally across the surface, the tip is moved up or down to
keep the tunneling current (tip to surface distance L) constant. As a result the
tip maps out the contours of the surface with resolution on the scale of 1 nm
instead of >300 nm for optical microscopes!

Fig. 38-17

38-24