SCIENCE 10 (REPORTING)

GROUP IV
 CHAPTER 13
THE STRING OF LIFE
MAPEH (Arts) 10
POINT OF
DISCUSSION: ACID
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC
(DNA) IS THE CHEMICAL BASIS
OF HEREDITY.
DO YOU KNOW THEM?
KATE BOSWORTH
A HOLLYWOOD
ACTRESS WITH
HETEROCHROMI
A IRIDUM. SHE
HAS DIFFERENT-
COLORED EYES,
BLUE AND HAZEL
BROWN.
MILA KUNIS
ALSO AN
ACTRESS WITH
HETEROCHROMI
A IRIDUM. SHE
HAS DIFFERENT-
COLORED EYES,
BROWN (LEFT)
AND GREEN
 HETEROCHROMIA IRIDUM
FACTS
• Heterochromia iridis is an uncommon condition in
which the two eyes are different in color.
• Heterochromia iridis may be congenital (present
at birth) or acquired.
• Hereditary heterochromia iridis may be associated
with other abnormalities of the eyes or body.
• Acquired heterochromia is usually due to an eye
disease.
• If the condition is acquired, treatment may be
directed at the underlying cause.
• Colored contact lenses may be used for cosmetic
results.
 LESSON 13.1
HE DISCOVERY OF DNA AS THE GENET
MATERIAL
DNA STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
WHEN WE TALK ABOUT
HEREDITY, DNA COMES ALONG
WITH IT. THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
HEREDITY WAS ESTABLISHED
BECAUSE OF THE EXPERIMENTS OF
THE FATHER OF GENETICS,
 GRIFFITH’S
TRANSFORMATION
EXPERIMENT
Griffith's Experiment was an experiment done in
1928 by Frederick Griffith. It was one of the first
experiments showing that bacteria can get DNA
through a process called transformation.
In this experiment, bacteria from the III-S strain
were killed by heat, and their remains were added to
II-R strain bacteria. While neither harmed the mice
on their own, the blend of the two was able to kill
mice.
 Griffith used two strains of Pneumococcus. These
bacteria infect mice. He used a type III-S (smooth)
and type II-R (rough) strain. The III-S strain covers
itself with a polysaccharide capsule that protects it
from the host's immune system. This means that the
host will die. The II-R strain does not have that
protective shield around it and is killed by the host's
immune system.
The Hershey-Chase Blender Experiment
The Hershey–Chase experiments were a series of
experiments conducted in 1952 by Alfred Hershey
and Martha Chase that helped to confirm that DNA
is genetic material. While DNA had been known to
biologists since 1869, many scientists still assumed at
the time that proteins carried the information for
inheritance because DNA appeared simpler than
proteins. In their experiments, Hershey and Chase
showed that when bacteriophages, which are
composed of DNA and protein, infect bacteria, their
DNA enters the host bacterial cell, but most of their
protein does not. Although the results were not
conclusive, and Hershey and Chase were cautious in
 LESSON 13.1
THE ELUCIDATION OF THE DNA
STRUCTURE
DNA STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

AFTER THE HERSHEY-CHASE BLENDER

EXPERIMENT, THE NEXT SERIES OF
EXPERIMENTS FOCUSED ON THE
STRUCTURE DNA AND WHAT IT LOOKED
LIKE.
 LEVENE’S NUCLEOTIDE
Phoebus Aaron Theodore Levene, M.D. (25 February
1863 – 6 September 1940) was an American
biochemist who studied the structure and function of
nucleic acids. He characterized the different forms of
nucleic acid, DNA from RNA, and found that DNA
contained adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine,
deoxyribose, and a phosphate group. Not only did
Levene identify the components of DNA, he also
showed that the components were linked together in
the order phosphate-sugar-base to form units. He
called each of these units a nucleotide, and stated that
the DNA molecule consisted of a string of nucleotide
 CHARGAFF RULES
Chargaff's rules states that DNA from any cell of all
organisms should have a 1:1 ratio (base Pair Rule) of
pyrimidine and purine bases and, more specifically,
that the amount of guanine is equal to cytosine and
the amount of adenine is equal to thymine. This
pattern is found in both strands of the DNA.
ROSALIND FRANKLIN’S X-RAY
DIFFRACTION
This is the X-ray crystallograph pattern of DNA
obtained by Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling
in 1952. It is know as the B-form. It was clearer than
the other X-ray patterns because water was included
in pattern. The distinctive "X" in this X-ray photo is
the telltale pattern of a helix. Because the X-ray
pattern is so regular, the dimensions of the helix must
also be consistent.
 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
is the experimental science of determining the
arrangement of atoms in the crystalline solids
THE WATSON-CRICK DNA MODEL: A
DOUBLE HELIX
On April 25, 1953, an article in the scientific journal
Nature entitled “Molecular Structure of Nucleic
Acids: A Strucutre for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid ”
was published. The two paged articles was authored
by the American biologist James Wantson and
English physicist Francis Crick. This was the first
published article that described the structure of the
DNA as a double helix. Considered as the “pearl” of
science, the articled contained the answers to how the
genetic information inside te nucleus of cells was
stored and passed from one generation to another.
The article was considered a giant scientific leap and
In molecular biology, the term double helix refers to
the structure formed by double-stranded molecules of
nucleic acids such as DNA. The double helical
structure of a nucleic acid complex arises as a
consequence of its secondary structure, and is a
fundamental component in determining its tertiary
structure.
 LESSON 13.2
THE NUCLEIC ACIDS AND THEIR
CONNECTION WITH INHERITANCE
CELLS
 CELL
is the smallest unit of life that can
replicate independently, and cells are
often called the "building blocks of life"
CHROMOSOMES
 CHROMOSOME
a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and
protein found in the nucleus of most
living cells, carrying genetic information
in the form of genes.
GENES
 GENE
A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of
heredity. Genes, which are made up of DNA, act as
instructions to make molecules called proteins. In
humans, genes vary in size from a few hundred DNA
bases to more than 2 million bases. The Human
Genome Project has estimated that humans have
between 20,000 and 25,000 genes.
Every person has two copies of each gene, one
inherited from each parent. Most genes are the same
in all people, but a small number of genes (less than 1
percent of the total) are slightly different between
people. Alleles are forms of the same gene with small
 Nucleic acids
“storage of genetic information”
Are biopolymers, or large biomolecules, essential for
all known forms of life. Nucleic acids, which include
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic
acid), are made from monomers known as
nucleotides. Each nucleotide has three components: a
5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous
base. If the sugar is deoxyribose, the polymer is DNA.
If the sugar is ribose, the polymer is RNA. When all
three components are combined, they form a
nucleotide. Nucleotides are also known as phosphate
2 TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACID
 DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic
Acid)
It is a molecule that carries
the genetic instructions used
in the growth, development,
functioning and reproduction
of all known living organisms
and many viruses.
RNA (Ribonucleic
Acid)
It is a polymeric
molecule essential in various
biological roles in coding,
decoding, regulation, and
expression of genes. It aids
in carrying out DNA’s
blueprint guidelines.
 LESSON 13.3
THE CENTRAL DOGMA OF
MOLECULAR GENETICS
 It explains the flow of genetic
information, from DNA to RNA,
to make a functional product: a
protein.
 It was first
proposed in 1958 by
Francis Crick, the
discoverer of the
structure of DNA.
The process involved
in the production of
protein is called
*protein synthesis*.
Its steps are
replication,
 REPLICATION: HOW DNA COPIES
ITSELF
Cells need to make identical copies of their genetic materials
for growth and repair. Replication occurs during the “S Phase”
(synthesis stage) during the cell cycle. During the replication, the
two DNA strands connected by hydrogen bonds separate from
each other in a process called “semiconservative replication”.
TRANSCRIPTION: MAKING
WORKING COPIES OF THE
GENESDNA instructions are kept
inside a safe place: the nucleus.
Copies of the instructions are
sent to particular genes to
dirrect assembly of proteins. It
is the RNA's job to make copies
of the DNA's blueprint. 3 kinds
of RNA are involved in the
process of protein synthesis:
the messenger RNA (mRNA),
ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and
transfer RNA (tRNA)
 TRANSLATION: MAKING THE
PROTEIN

Translation is the last stage in gene

expression, which leads to the formation
formation of protein. Before a cell can use and
follow the DNA's blueprints, it needs to
understand it. To do this, the cells have
something called the ribosomes. The ribosomes
translate the informations for the cell so it can
make protein. After this, the protein can be used
by the body.
 LESSON 13.4
GENETIC
MUTATIONS
 Gene Mutation
A gene mutation is a permanent alteration in the
DNA sequence that makes up a gene, such that the
sequence differs from what is found in most people.
Mutations range in size; they can affect anywhere
from a single DNA building block (base pair) to a
large segment of a chromosome that includes
multiple genes. Examples of mutations are albinism
(the absence of pigments in the skin), sickle cell
anemia (inability of red blood cells to efficiently
transport oxygen), trisomy 21 or Down’syndrome
(presence of the extra chromosome 21), hemophilia
(inability of the blood to clot), Huntington’s disease
(deterioration of the brain tissue), and cystic
 Gene mutations can be classified in two
major ways:
• Hereditary mutations are inherited from a parent and are
present throughout a person’s life in virtually every cell in the
body. These mutations are also called germline mutations
because they are present in the parent’s egg or sperm cells,
which are also called germ cells. When an egg and a sperm
cell unite, the resulting fertilized egg cell receives DNA from
both parents. If this DNA has a mutation, the child that grows
from the fertilized egg will have the mutation in each of his or
her cells.
• Acquired (or somatic) mutations occur at some time during
a person’s life and are present only in certain cells, not in
every cell in the body. These changes can be caused by
environmental factors such as ultraviolet radiation from the
sun, or can occur if a mistake is made as DNA copies itself
• Genetic changes that are described as de novo (new) mutations can be either
hereditary or somatic. In some cases, the mutation occurs in a person’s egg or sperm
cell but is not present in any of the person’s other cells. In other cases, the mutation
occurs in the fertilized egg shortly after the egg and sperm cells unite. (It is often
impossible to tell exactly when a de novo mutation happened.) As the fertilized egg
divides, each resulting cell in the growing embryo will have the mutation. De novo
mutations may explain genetic disorders in which an affected child has a mutation
in every cell in the body but the parents do not, and there is no family history of the
disorder.
• Somatic mutations that happen in a single cell early in embryonic development can
lead to a situation called mosaicism. These genetic changes are not present in a
parent’s egg or sperm cells, or in the fertilized egg, but happen a bit later when the
embryo includes several cells. As all the cells divide during growth and
development, cells that arise from the cell with the altered gene will have the
mutation, while other cells will not. Depending on the mutation and how many cells
are affected, mosaicism may or may not cause health problems.
• Most disease-causing gene mutations are uncommon in the general population.
However, other genetic changes occur more frequently. Genetic alterations that
occur in more than 1 percent of the population are called polymorphisms. They are
common enough to be considered a normal variation in the DNA. Polymorphisms
BASED ON CHROMOSOME NUMBER
A chromosome mutation that causes individuals to have an abnormal
number of chromosomes is termed aneuploidy. Aneuploid cells occur as
a result of chromosome breakage or nondisjunction errors that happen
during meiosis or mitosis. Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous
chromosomes to separate properly during cell division. It produces
individuals with either extra or missing chromosomes. Sex chromosome
abnormalities that result from nondisjunction can lead to conditions such
as Klinefelter and Turner syndromes. In Klinefelter syndrome, males
have one or more extra X sex chromosomes. In Turner syndrome,
females have only one X sex chromosome. Down syndrome is an
example of a condition that occurs due to nondisjunction in autosomal
(non-sex) cells. Individuals with Down syndrome have an extra
chromosome on autosomal chromosome 21.
• A chromosome mutation that results in individuals with
more than one haploid set of chromosomes in a cell is
termed polyploidy. A haploid cell is a cell that contains one
complete set of chromosomes. Our sex cells are considered
haploid and contain 1 complete set of 23 chromosomes.
Our autosomal cells are diploid and contain 2 complete
sets of 23 chromosomes. If a mutation causes a cell to have
three haploid sets, it is called triploidy. If the cell has four
haploid sets, it is called tetraploidy.
• Euploidy is the state of a cell or organism having an exact
multiple of the monoploid number (x). So a normal human
somatic cell with its 46 chromosomes is euploid because 46
is an exact multiple of the monoploid number for humans,
23. Even an abnormal number of chromosomes, such as 69
or 92 chromosomes, is considered euploid because both
these figures are still exact multiples of the monoploid
 Translocation
The joining of a
fragmented chromosome
to a non-homologous
chromosome is a
translocation. The piece
of chromosome detaches
from one chromosome
and moves to a new
Deletion: Is a loss of one or more on
position base pairs in
another
gene. Duplication: Duplications are produced when
chromosome.
extra copies of genes are generated on a
chromosome. Inversion: In an inversion, the
broken chromosome segment is reversed and
 LESSON 13.5
GENETIC
DISORDERS
 Genes are the building blocks of heredity. They are passed
from parent to child. They hold DNA, the instructions for
making proteins. Proteins do most of the work in cells. They
move molecules from one place to another, build structures,
break down toxins, and do many other maintenance jobs.
Sometimes there is a mutation, a change in a gene or
genes. The mutation changes the gene's instructions for
making a protein, so the protein does not work properly or is
missing entirely. This can cause a medical condition called a
genetic disorder.
You can inherit a gene mutation from one or both parents. A
mutation can also happen during your lifetime.
Genetic tests are tests on blood and other tissue to find genetic
disorders. Over 2000 tests are available. Doctors use genetic
tests for several reasons. These include
• Finding genetic diseases in unborn babies
• Finding out if people carry a gene for a disease and might
pass it on to their children
• Screening embryos for disease
• Testing for genetic diseases in adults before they cause
symptoms
• Making a diagnosis in a person who has disease symptoms
• Figuring out the type or dose of a medicine that is best for a
certain person
People have many different reasons for being tested or not
being tested. For some, it is important to know whether a
TAY-SACHS DISEASE
(HEXOSAMINIDASE)
 Tay-Sachs disease is a rare inherited disorder that
progressively destroys nerve cells (neurons) in the brain and
spinal cord.
The most common form of Tay-Sachs disease becomes
apparent in infancy. Infants with this disorder typically appear
normal until the age of 3 to 6 months, when their development
slows and muscles used for movement weaken. Affected infants
lose motor skills such as turning over, sitting, and crawling.
They also develop an exaggerated startle reaction to loud noises.
As the disease progresses, children with Tay-Sachs
disease experience seizures, vision and hearing loss, intellectual
disability, and paralysis. An eye abnormality called a cherry-red
spot, which can be identified with an eye examination, is
characteristic of this disorder. Children with this severe infantile
form of Tay-Sachs disease usually live only into early
SICKLE CELL ANEMIA (SCA)
 The term sickle cell disease (SCD) describes a group of
inherited red blood cell disorders. People with SCD have
abnormal hemoglobin, called hemoglobin S or sickle hemoglobin,
in their red blood cells. Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells
that carries oxygen throughout the body.
“Inherited” means that the disease is passed by genes from
parents to their children. SCD is not contagious. A person cannot
catch it, like a cold or infection, from someone else. People who
have SCD inherit two abnormal hemoglobin genes, one from each
parent. In all forms of SCD, at least one of the two abnormal
genes causes a person’s body to make hemoglobin S. When a
person has two hemoglobin S genes, Hemoglobin SS, the disease
is called sickle cell anemia. This is the most common and often
most severe kind of SCD.
Hemoglobin SC disease and hemoglobin Sβ thalassemia (thal-
uh-SEE-me-uh) are two other common forms of SCD.
PHENYLKETONURIA (PKU)
 Phenylketonuria (commonly known as PKU)
is an inherited disorder that increases the levels
of a substance called phenylalanine in the blood.
Phenylalanine is a building block of proteins (an
amino acid) that is obtained through the diet. It
is found in all proteins and in some artificial
sweeteners. If PKU is not treated, phenylalanine
can build up to harmful levels in the body,
causing intellectual disability and other serious
health problems.
HEMOPHILIA A
and
HEMOPHILIA B
HEMOPHILIA A
Hemophilia A, also called factor VIII (FVIII)
deficiency or classic hemophilia, is a genetic disorder
caused by missing or defective factor VIII, a clotting
protein. Although it is passed down from parents to
children, about 1/3 of cases are caused by a spontaneous
mutation, a change in a gene.
According to the US Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, hemophilia occurs in approximately 1 in 5,000
live births. There are about 20,000 people with hemophilia
in the US. All races and ethnic groups are affected.
Hemophilia A is four times as common as hemophilia B
while more than half of patients with hemophilia A have
the severe form of hemophilia.
HEMOPHILIA B
Hemophilia B, also called factor IX (FIX)
deficiency or Christmas disease, is a genetic disorder
caused by missing or defective factor IX, a clotting
protein. Although it is passed down from parents to
children, about 1/3 of cases are caused by a
spontaneous mutation, a change in a gene.
According to the US Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, hemophilia occurs in approximately 1
in 5,000 live births. There are about 20,000 people
with hemophilia in the US. All races and ethnic groups
are affected. Hemophilia B is four times less common
than hemophilia A.
CYSTIC FIBROSIS (CF)
 Cystic fibrosis is a progressive, genetic
disease that causes persistent lung infections and
limits the ability to breathe over time.
In people with CF, a defective gene causes a
thick, buildup of mucus in the lungs, pancreas
and other organs. In the lungs, the mucus clogs
the airways and traps bacteria leading to
infections, extensive lung damage and
eventually, respiratory failure. In the pancreas,
the mucus prevents the release of digestive
enzymes that allow the body to break down food
and absorb vital nutrients.
CRI-DU-CHAT SYNDROME
Cri-du-chat (cat's cry) syndrome, also known as 5p-
(5p minus) syndrome, is a chromosomal condition that
results when a piece of chromosome 5 is missing.
Infants with this condition often have a high-pitched
cry that sounds like that of a cat. The disorder is
characterized by intellectual disability and delayed
development, small head size (microcephaly), low
birth weight, and weak muscle tone (hypotonia) in
infancy. Affected individuals also have distinctive
facial features, including widely set eyes
(hypertelorism), low-set ears, a small jaw, and a
rounded face. Some children with cri-du-chat
syndrome are born with a heart defect.
DUCHENNE MUSCULAR
DYSTROPHY (DMD)
 Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is
a genetic disorder characterized by
progressive muscle degeneration and
weakness. It is one of nine types
of muscular dystrophy.
DMD is caused by an absence
of dystrophin, a protein that helps keep
muscle cells intact. Symptom onset is in
early childhood, usually between ages 3 and
5. The disease primarily affects boys, but in
rare cases it can affect girls.
 LESSON 13.5

GENETIC
MANIPULATION
 What is genetic engineering? 
• Genetic engineering, sometimes called genetic
modification, is the process of altering the DNA in
an organism's genome. 
• This may mean changing one base pair (A-T or C-
G) ,letting gene. 
• It may also mean extracting DNA from another
organism’s genome and combining it with the DNA
of that individual.
• Genetic engineering is used by scientists to
enhance or modify the characteristics of an
individual organism.
• Any discussion of genetics makes reference to DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid), a molecule that contains genetic
codes for inheritance. DNA resides in chromosomes,
threadlike structures found in the nucleus, or control center,
of every cell in every living thing. Chromosomes
themselves are made up of genes, which carry codes for the
production of proteins. The latter, of which there are many
thousands of different varieties, make up the majority of the
human body's dry weight.

• In 1944, a research team led by the Canadian-born American

bacteriologist Oswald Avery (1877-1955) found that by
taking DNA from one type of bacterium and inserting it into
another, the second bacterium took on certain traits of the
 How does genetic engineering works?
1. A small piece of 5. This cell then divides
rapidly and starts making
circular DNA
insulin.
called a plasmid is 6. To create large amounts of
extracted from the the cells, the genetically
bacteria or yeast cell. modified bacteria or yeast are
2. A small section is grown in large fermentation
vessels that contain all the
then cut out of the nutrients they need. The more
circular plasmid by the cells divide, the more
restriction insulin is produced.
enzymes, ‘molecular 7. When fermentation is
scissors’. complete, the mixture is
filtered to release the insulin.
3. The gene for 8. The insulin is then purified
human insulin is and packaged into bottles and
inserted into the gap insulin pens for distribution to
patients with diabetes.
 Biotechnology
• The term biotechnology was coined from the words
biology and technology.

• Biotechnology has been associated with genetic

engineering, specifically in the development of the
genetically engineered microorganisms.

• In broader sense, biotechnology refers to the large scale

industrial use of biological processes of microorganisms
in order to produce substances or provide services to
mankind.

• Modifications of plant and animal characteristics can

 Biotechnology: It’s in your food
• Biotechnology in the area of plant research has been
revolutionized over the past few decades to respond to the major
goal, which is to improve the quality of crops and yields.

• Through genetic engineering, they have produced plants that are

resistant to insecticides and drought; fruits and vegetables with
improved taste, texture, size and color, and grain s with improved
protein content.

• Genetically Modified (GM) foods are crop plants created for

human or animal consumption by employing the latest genetic
engineering methodologies.

• Despite the potential benefits that mankind can derive from these
GM foods, however, there are those who do not support their
Biotechnology: It’s in your medicine
• Biotechnology has also been explored in the medical field,
specifically in the production of drugs used to treat different
diseases.

• Biotechnology introduces a new approach biopharming or

molecular farming, in which plants and animals are genetically
modified to produce pharmaceutical compounds.

• Proteins that result from manipulations in the DNA, or

recombinant proteins, can be produced in large quantities and in
highly purified forms.

• ATryn is a recombinant form of a human antithrombin produced

in transgenic goats.
Biotechnology also includes the development of
diagnostic reagents and methodologies to accurately
determine the disorder of a patient.

Gene Therapy is another application of genetic

modification, which involves the identification and
repair of mutated genes that cause diseases.

Gene Therapy is done by putting a healthy copy of a

gene into the cells of a person with a defective or
mutated genes. Although it is not widely practiced at
present, gene therapy is believed to be common
mode of treating diseases in the near future.
 Biotechnology: It’s in your Body
(Monitoring Your Body with biochips)
• Biochips produced by Senseonics, Inc. (formerly
Sensors for Medicine and Science, Inc.) are
implanted under the skin of diabetic patients to
monitor their blood glucose levels.

• This device eliminates the need for patients to

undergo blood testing, which requires blood
extraction. With this biochip, diabetics will know
instantly if they need to take insulin supplements.

• Another biochip, the Activa implant, being

developed by Medtronic, Inc., is focused on
turning off brain signals that cause uncontrolled
body movement associated with diseases such as
Parkinson’s.
• The biochip aims to reversibly shut off
the thalamus, the part of the brain that
causes the uncontrolled body
movement.

• Other implantable biochips being

developed include devices that will
mimic the action of photoreceptors, the
light-sensing cells of the eyes. These
biochips aim to help patients with
retinitis pigmentosa (degenerative eye
retinal disease) and other diseases
related to impaired vision to gain back
their eye sight.

• A Biochip called Clarion manufactured

by Advanced Bionics works as a bionic
ear in deaf children.
 Biotechnology: It’s in Our Agriculture
(Biopesticides and Biofertilizers)
• Modern method of farming entail the use of synthetic
fertilizers and insecticides to increase crop yield, there
substances are potentially hazardous to humans and
animals and may cause chemical pollution.

• Genetic engineering makes possible the induced

mutation of bacteria to produced chemicals called
allelopathic agents, which can serve as biopesticides and
bioherbicides. These substances can be useful
alternatives to traditional methods of pest control.

• Biofertilizers are genetically modified microorganisms

that are grown symbiotically with crops.

• Soybeans and other leguminous plants naturally

produced their own nitrogen fertilizer through nitrogen
fixation, a process made possible by nitrogen-fixing
 Biotechnology: Its in our
environment (Bioremediation)
• Bioremediation generally refers to the use of biotechnology to solve environmental
problems, such as treatment and disposal of wastes, which are major problems
associated with industrialization.

• Bioremediation uses natural as well as recombinant microorganisms to break

down toxic and hazardous substances in the environment.

• Microbiologists identify and modify microorganisms with the fastest and most
efficient capability to degrade waste materials.

• “Oil-eating” bacteria are essential microbes used to clean up oil spills, chlorinated
chemicals, and leaks from storage tanks.

• Genes responsible for the degradation of a specific oil can be isolated and inserted
and inserted into the genome of other bacteria to produce a clone with the same
waste-degrading capacity.