Chapter 3

Sensor Technology
 Introduction
 A transducer is defined as any device that
converts energy from one form to another in such
a way that the output is proportional to the input.

 The output from most transducers is in the form

of electrical energy.

 For example a loudspeaker is a transducer that

transforms electrical signals into sound energy.
 Introduction
 A sensor is a transducer that is used to make
measurement of a physical variable.
 It is a device that responds to a physical stimulus
(as heat, light, sound, pressure, magnetism, or a
particular motion) and transmits a resulting
impulse (a signal relating to the quantity being
measured).
 For example, certain sensors convert temperature
into a change in resistance.
 Introduction

 Sensors differ slightly from transducers in that,

although changes occur, the changes do not
necessarily involve energy conversion.
 It is more likely that a change in some property of
the sensor occurs.
 For example, many position-measuring
transducers utilize a component called a photocell.
 A photocell is a device that changes its electrical
resistance in proportion to the amount of light
falling on it.
 Introduction

 If a voltage is connected across the photocell, then

this voltage will change as the amount of light
changes.
 The photocell can be caused to act like a
transducer although strictly speaking no energy
conversion is taking place
Limit Switches
 Limit Switches
 A limit switch has the same ON/OFF characteristics.
 The limit switch usually has a pressure-sensitive
mechanical arm.
 When an object applies pressure on the mechanical
arm, the switch circuit is energized.
 An object might have a magnet attached that causes a
contact to rise and close when the object passes over
the arm.
 Limit Switches

 Limit switches can be either

- Normally open (NO) or
- Normally closed (NC) and may have
multiple poles.
 A normally open switch has continuity when
pressure applied and a contact is made.
 While a normally closed switch opens when
pressure is applied.
 Limit Switches

Figure A.2: Normally Open-Normally Closed Limit Switches

 Limit Switches

 A single pole switch allows one circuit to

be opened or closed upon switch contact.
 Multiple-pole switch allows multiple
circuits to be opened or closed.
 Limit Switches
Limit switches are mechanical devices.
Limit Switches has following drawback:
 They are subject to mechanical failure.
 Their mean time between failures (MTBF) is
low compared to non-contact sensors.
 Their speed of operation is relatively low; the
switching speed of photoelectric
microsensors is up to 3000 times faster
 Limit Switches -Advantages
 Limit switches are mechanical position-sensing
devices that offer simplicity, robustness, and
repeatability to processes.

 Mechanical limit switches are simplest in which

contact is made and a switch is engaged.

 Limit switches are easy to maintain because the

operator can hear the operation of the switch and
can align it easily to fit the application.
 Limit Switches -Advantages
 They are also robust. They can handle an inrush current
10 times that of their steady state rating.

 Reliability is another benefit. Published claims for repeat

accuracy for standard limit switches vary from within
0.03mm to within 0.001mm over temperature range of -4
to +200F.

 Limit switch dissipate energy spikes and rarely break

down under normal mode surges. They will not be
affected by electromagnetic interferences (EMI).
Proximity Sensors
 Proximity Sensors

 Proximity sensing is the technique of detecting the presence

or absence of an object with an electronic non-contact
sensor. There are three types of proximity sensors:

1. Inductive,
2. Capacitive,
3. Magnetic.
 Proximity Sensors
• Mechanical limit switches are the first devices
to detect objects in industrial applications.

• Inductive proximity sensors are used in place

of limit switches for non-contact sensing of
metallic objects.

• Capacitive proximity switches can also detect

non-metallic objects.

• Both inductive and capacitive sensors are limit

switches with ranges up to 100mm.
 Inductive Proximity Sensors

 Inductive sensors are used to detect the presence of

metallic objects.
 These sensors require DC or AC voltage for the power
to drive circuitry to generate the fields and to produce
output signal.
 Inductive Proximity Sensors
• An inductive proximity sensor consists of four
basic elements:

1. Sensor coil and ferrite

core
2. Oscillator circuit
3. Trigger/Detector circuit
4. Solid-state output circuit
Inductive Proximity Sensor
working principle
 The oscillator circuit generates a radio-
frequency electromagnetic field that
radiates from the ferrite core and coil
assembly.
 The field is centered around the axis of the
ferrite core, which shapes the field and
directs it at the sensor face.
 When a metal target approaches and
enters the field, eddy current are induced
into the surfaces of the target.
 Inductive Proximity Sensor
working principle
 This results in a loading effect, or
“damping” that causes a reduction in
amplitude of the oscillator signal.
 The detector circuit detects the change in
oscillator amplitude. The detector will
switch ON at specific operate amplitude.
 This ON signal generates a signal to turn
ON the solid state output. This is often
referred to as the damped condition.
 Inductive Proximity Sensor
working principle

 As the target leaves the sensing field, the

oscillator responds with an increase in
amplitude.
 As the amplitude increases above a specific
value, it is detected by the detector circuit,
which switches OFF, causing the output
signal to return to the normal or
OFF(undamped) state.
 Inductive Proximity Sensor

 Typical applications of inductive proximity sensors in

control systems:

• Motion position detection

• Motion control
• Conveyor system control
• Process control
• Machine control
• Verification and counting
Capacitive Proximity Sensors
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
 Capacitive sensing is based on dielectric capacitance.
 Capacitance is the property of insulators to store an
electric charge.
 A capacitor consists of two plates separated by an
insulator, usually called a dielectric.
 When the switch is closed a charge is stored on the
two plates.
 The distance between the plates determine the ability
of a capacitor to store a charge and can be calibrated
as a function of stored charge to determine discrete
ON and OFF switching status.
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
The capacitive proximity sensor has the same four basic elements as
an inductive sensor:

1.Sensor (the dielectric

plate)
2.Oscillator circuit
3.Detector circuit
4.Solid-state output circuit
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
 The oscillator circuit includes feedback capacitance
from the external target plate and the internal plate.
 In a capacitive switch, the oscillator starts oscillating
when sufficient feedback capacitance is detected.
 The oscillation begin with an approaching target until
the value of capacitance reaches a threshold.
 At threshold point the trigger circuit will turn on the
output switching device.
 Thus the output modules function as normally open,
normally closed, or changeover switches.
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
Features of capacitive
sensors:

• They can detect non-metallic targets

• They can detect lightweight or small objects that
cannot be detected by mechanical limit switches
• They provide a high switching rate for rapid
response in object counting applications.
• They can detect liquid targets through non-
metallic barriers, (glass, plastic, etc)
• They have long operational life with a virtually
unlimited number of operating cycles.
• The solid-state output provides a bounce-free
contact signal
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
Typical applications of capacitive proximity sensors
in control systems:

•Liquid level detection

•Bulk material level control
•Process control
Magnetic Proximity Sensors
 Magnetic Proximity Sensor
 As with inductive proximity sensors, magnetic
proximity sensor has

1. LC oscillating circuit,
2. A signal strength
indicator and
3. A switching amplifier.
4. Strip of magnetically
soft-glass metal.
 Magnetic Proximity Sensor
 This strip attenuates the oscillating circuit .
 If a magnet is brought closer, the oscillating de-attenuates.
 The power consumption of a magnetic proximity sensor
therefore increases as the magnet is brought closer
(in inductive proximity sensor the power consumption
reduces as the switching target is brought closer.)
 A major advantage of this technology is that large sensing
ranges are possible even with small sensor types.
 Magnetic Proximity Sensor
 Permanent magnets are usually used to trigger
magnetic proximity sensors.
Eg: magnetically hard-substances, such as steel alloyed
with other metals such as aluminum, cobalt and
nickel.
 Photoelectric Sensors

• A photoelectric sensor is a
semiconductor component that
reacts to light or emits light. The
light may be either in visible range
or the invisible infrared range.
 Photoelectric Sensors

• Infrared sensors may be active or

passive. The active sensors send out
an infrared beam and respond to the
reflection of the beam against a target.
 Photoelectric Sensors

• The distinct advantage of

photoelectric sensors over inductive
or capacitive sensors is their
increased range.

• Dirt, oil mist and other

environmental factors will hinder
operation of photoelectric sensors
during manufacturing process.
 Photoelectric Sensors
 There are three modes of detection
used by photoelectric sensors:

• Through-beam detection method

• Reflex/retro-reflective detection
method
• Proximity/Diffuse reflective
detection method
 Photoelectric Sensors
 The light source used for each of the
three modes comes from a LED.
 LEDs emit a visible colored light (red,
green, yellow) or invisible (infrared) light.
 Photoelectric Sensors
 Visible LEDs are used for in retro-
reflective applications, they provide
easy reflector alignment to the
sensor.

 Light intensity of infrared LEDs is

greater than the visible ones. They
are better suited for through-beam
and diffused style sensors.
 Photoelectric Sensors
 Switching the LED off and on at a
predetermined frequency (modulating),
increases the light intensity and lifetime
of the LED while reducing the average
power consumed.

 The pulsed LED provides a stronger signal

when compared to a continuously
illuminated LED, therefore, a larger
sensing range can be obtained.
 Photoelectric Sensors
 Another key advantage to
modulating the sensor is to provide
protection against external light
interference.
 The receiving circuit, typically
phototransistor based, is modulated
at the same frequency as the
emitter’s.
 Photoelectric Sensors
Photoelectric sensors are comprised of the
following components :

1. Light Source (LED)

2. Receiver
(phototransistor)
3. Signal Converter
4. Amplifier
 Photoelectric Sensors

 The generated light pulses that are

received by the phototransistor are
converted into electrical signals.
 These signals are analyzed in order
to determine if they are the result of
the actual transmitted light.
 Upon verification, the output of the
sensor is switched accordingly.
 With the appropriate conditioning,
light or dark sensing is achieved.
 Photoelectric Sensors
Through-beam detection method

• Sensor have separate source and detector elements

aligned opposite each other, with the beam of light
crossing the path that an object must cross.
• When an object passes between the source and
detector, the beam is broken, signaling detection of
the object.
 Photoelectric Sensors
Through-beam detection method
 The effective beam area is that of column of
light travels straight between the lenses.
 Photoelectric Sensors
Through-beam detection method
 Light from the source is transmitted
directly to the photo-detector ,
through-beam sensors offer the
following benefits:

• Longest sensing range

• Highest possible signal strength
• Greatest light/dark contrast ratio
• Best trip point repeatability
 Photoelectric Sensors
Through-beam detection method
 Through-beam detection generally provides the longest
range of the three operating modes and provides high power
at a shorter range to penetrate steam, dirt, or other
contaminants between the source and detector.

 The limitation of through-beam sensors are as follows:

• They require wiring of the two components across the detection zone.
• It may be difficult to align the source and the detector.
• If the object to be detected is smaller than the effective beam diameter,

an aperture over the lens may be required.

• Alignment of the source and detector must be accurate.
Reflex/Retro-reflective detection
method

 Reflex photoelectric controls position the source and

detection parallel to each other on the same side of the target.
 The light is directed to a retro-reflector and returns to the
detector. The switching and output occur when an object
breaks the beam.

Figure A.15: Reflex Photoelectric Controls

Reflex/Retro-reflective detection
method
 Since the light travels in two directions (hence twice the
distance), reflex controls will not sense as far as through-
beam sensors. However, reflex controls offer a powerful
sensing system that is easy to mount and does not require that
electrical wire to be run on both sides of the sensing areas.
 The main limitation of these sensors is that a shiny surface on
the target object can trigger false detection. Hence the object
to be detected must be less reflective than the retro-reflector.
 The reflex method is widely used because it is flexible and
easy to install and provides the best cost-performance ratio of
the three methods.
Proximity/Diffuse reflective detection
method

 The proximity detection method requires that the source

and detector are installed on the same side of the object to
be detected and aimed at a point in front of the sensor.

Figure A.17: Proximity Detection

Proximity/Diffuse reflective detection
method
 When an object passes in front of the source and
detector, light from the source is reflected from the
object’s surface back to the detector, and the object is
detected.
 Each sensor type has a specific operating range. In
general, through-beam sensors offer the greatest
range, followed by reflex sensors, then by proximity
sensors.
 The maximum range for through-beam sensors is of
primary importance. At any distance less than the
maximum range, the sensor has more than enough
power to detect an object.
Proximity/Diffuse reflective detection
method
 The optimum range for the proximity and reflex
sensors is more than significant than the maximum
range. The optimum range is the range at which the
sensor has the most power available to detect
objects.

Figure A.18: Proximity detection

 Ultrasonic Sensors

 Ultrasonic sensors are used in non-contact material

monitoring applications including web loop control, level
control, positioning, flow monitoring and conveyor
transfer.
 Ultrasonic sensors use the propagation time of sound
pulse to calculate the distance of a target. Sound pulses
are emitted and received by a diaphragm in the face of
the transducer as illustrated in the diagram below.
 Ultrasonic Sensors

Figure A.19: Ultrasonic Sensing

y
in olog
Term

•Beam Angle: The beam angle is the angle formed by sound waves as they
emanate from an ultrasonic sensor. The beam angle defines the usable area in
which target detection is possible.
Terminology of Ultrasonic Sensor

•Deadband: The deadband is the unusable region that defines the minimum distance
for target detection. The unusable region occurs because a transducer must be
pulsed in order to produce a sound wave, and the oscillations from the shocked
must stop before the transducer can register its echo pulse.
 Terminology of Ultrasonic Sensor
 Linearity: If the “perfect” analog
ultrasonic sensor could be
produced, its output, from
beginning-to-end of the span
limits, would appear in graphical
form as a perfect straight line.
Linearity defines the tolerances
within which the sensor’s output
may vary from the “perfect” line
during “real life” target
monitoring. Linearity
specifications are always given as
a percentage.
Figure A.21: Linearity of Ultrasonic Sensor
Terminology of Ultrasonic Sensor
 Resolution: Resolution is the smallest target
movement an ultrasonic sensor can identify and
evaluate. For example, if an ultrasonic sensor has a
resolution of 10mm, the sensor output remains
unchanged until the target moves more than 10mm.
 Repeatability: Repeatability is the ability of a
sensor to consistently detect a target at the same
point. Repeatability is expressed as a percentage of
sensing range and is frequently affected by
environmental conditions.
Terminology of Ultrasonic Sensor
Target

 Good Targets: Ultrasonic sensors function

best in the detection and monitoring of
objects with a relatively high density. Solid,
liquid or granular media make ideal targets
due to their high acoustic reflectivity.
Unlike photoelectric sensors, target color
and dusty atmospheric conditions do not
affect ultrasonic sensors.
 Target
 Poor Targets: Porous targets such as felt, cloth or
foam rubber have very high sound absorption
properties, and subsequently make poor candidates
for ultrasonic detection. In addition, liquid targets,
typically excellent for ultrasonic detection, may
become undetectable if bubbles or foam cover the
surface.
 Unstable Targets: Standard ultrasonic sensors can
generate erroneous output signal when monitoring
turbulent or unstable targets.