(Finals) Lecture Image Production

PRINCIPLES OF
IMAGING
Prepared By: Leny
Felizarte
Patient’s Body Habitus
(size)
Influences Technique
PATHOLOGY
Lung collapses
No tissue in
space
Easy to
penetrate with
x-ray photons
pneumothorax
LUNG
Cancer
LUNG CANCER
Creating the Image
 Scatter
–Creates fog
–Lowers contrast (more grays)
 Increases as
–kV increases
–Field size increases
–Thickness of part increases
Effects of collimation on
scatter
 Collimate to area
of interest -
reduces scatter
and radiation
dose to the
patient
Grids
 A device with lead strips that is placed

between the patient and the cassette
 Used on larger body parts to reduce

the number of scattering photons from
reaching the image
DETAIL & Quality :
How well we can see something on the image
DETAIL
 The degree of sharpness

in an object’s borders and
structural details.
 How “clear” the object
looks on the radiograph
Recorded Detail
 The degree of sharpness in an object’s

borders and structural details.
 Other names:
-sharpness of detail
-definition
-resolution
-degree of noise
2 principal characteristics of
any image are
Spatial & Contrast
Resolution
 Spatial resolution
– Resolution is the ability to image two
separate objects and visually distinguish
one from the other
– Spatial resolution is the ability to image

small objects that have high subject
contrast (eg. bone-soft tissue interface,
calcified lung nodules)
2 principal characteristics of
any image are
Spatial & Contrast
Resolution
 Spatial resolution
– Determined by focal-spot size and other
factors that contribute to blur
– Diagnostic x-ray has excellent spatial
resolution. It is measured in line pairs per
mm. (CT measured in cm)
Factors that affect the
detail of an image
Factors that affect
Recorded Detail
 Geometric unsharpness
OID SID SIZE
SHAPE
 Motion unsharpness (blurring)
 Intensifying Screens
 Film Speed / Compostion
 Film – Screen contact
 Kvp & Mas (density /
Main Factors Affecting
Recorded Detail
 kVp & mAs
 Motion
 Object Unsharpness
 Focal Spot Size
 SID (Source to Image Distance)
 OID (Object to Image Distance)
 Material Unsharpness
GEOMETRIC QUALITIES
 DETAIL
 DISTORTION
 MAGNIFICATION
POOR
DETAIL
GOOD
DETAIL
Motio
nCan be voluntary or involuntary

 Best controlled by short exposure

times
 Use of careful instructions to the
pt.
 Suspension of pt. respiration
 Immobilization devices
Decrease Motion
Unsharpness
 Instruct patient not to move or breath
 Use Immobilization devices
 Use Short exposure times
 Lock equipment in place
Blurring of image
due to patient
movement during
exposure.
Object
Unsharpness
 Main problem is trying to image a 3-D
object on a 2-D film.
 Human body is not straight edges and
sharp angles.
 We must compensate for object
unsharpness with factors we can
control: focal spot size, SID &
OID
SID
Source to Image Distance
 The greater the distance between the
source of the x-ray (tube) and the
image receptor (cassette), the greater
the image sharpness.
 Standard distance = 40 in. most
exams
 Exception = Chest
radiography 72 in.
*See page 74 in your book
The position of the tube (SID) to IR
Will influence how the structures appear
on the image The farther away – the
less magnified ↑SID ↓ MAGNIFICATION
SID
 Shine a flashlight on a 3-D object,
shadow borders will appear “fuzzy”
-On a radiograph called
Penumbra
 Penumbra (fuzziness) obscures true
border – umbra
 Farther the flashlight from object =
sharper borders. Same with
radiography.
OID
Object to Image Distance
 The closer the object to the film, the
sharper the detail.
 OID , penumbra , sharpness 
 OID , penumbra , sharpness 
 Structures located deep in the body,
radiographer must know how to position to
get the object closest to the film.
The position of the structure in the body
will influence how magnified it will be
seen on the image
The farther away – the more magnified
Focal spot size – determined by filament in cathode
& surface area used at anode
Distortion
 Misrepresentation of the true size or

shape of an object
-MAGNIFICATION (size
distortion)
-TRUE DISTORTION
(shape
distortion)
MAGNIFICATION
 TUBE CLOSE TO THE PART

(SID)
 PART FAR FROM THE CASSETTE

(OID)
In terms of recorded detail
and magnification, the
best image is produced
with a small OID and a
large SID.
40” SID VS 72” SID
MAGNIFICATION
PROBLEMS
SID
SOD
SID – OID = SOD
Size Distortion & SID
 Major influences: SID & OID

 As SID , magnification 
 Standardized SID’s allow radiologist to
assume certain amt. of magnification
factors are present
 Must note deviations from standard
SID
Size Distortion & OID
 If source is kept constant, OID will

affect magnification
 As OID , magnification 
 The farther the object is from the film,
the more magnification
A = good
B & C = shape distortion
(elongation of part)
D&E =
shape distortion
(foreshortening of part)
Shape Distortion
 Misrepresentation of the shape of an

object
 Controlled by alignment of the beam,
part (object), & image receptor
 Influences: Central ray angulation &
body part rotation
Image Distortion
 When the part to be imaged – does

not lay parallel with the IR (cassette)
 If the Central Ray is not perpendicular

to the part
Elongation Foreshortened
Normal
Distortion (x-ray
Distortion (object & beam not centered
film not parallel) over object & film)
Central Ray
 Radiation beam diverges from the
tube in a pyramid shape.
 Photons in the center travel along a
straight line – central ray
 Photons along the beam’s periphery
travel at an angle
 When central ray in angled, image
shape is distorted.
Distortion of multiple objects in same
image (right) due to x-ray beam not
being centered over objects.
Central Ray Angulation
 Body parts are not always 90 degrees
from one another
 Central ray angulation is used to
demonstrate certain details that can
be hidden by superimposed body
parts.
 Body part rotation or obliquing the
body can also help visualize
superimposed anatomy.
Main Factors Affecting
Recorded Detail
 kVp & mAs
 Motion
 Object Unsharpness
 Focal Spot Size
 SID (Source to Image Distance)
 OID (Object to Image Distance)
 Material Unsharpness/ Film Screen
Combo
Factors Affecting mAs
 Patient factors: size of pt., density of

tissue, pt. compliance
 kVp
 Distance
 Grids
 Film/Screen Combinations
 Processing
Focal Spot Size
 Smaller x-ray beam width will produce a
sharper image.
 Fine detail = small focal spot (i.e. small
bones)
 General radiography uses large focal
spot
 Beam from penlight size flashlight vs. flood
light beam
ANODE ANODE
THE SMALLER THE BEAM TOWARDS THE
PATIENT - THE BETTER THE DETAIL OF
THE IMAGE PRODUCED
FOCAL SPOT ANGLE
SMALLER ANGLE – SMALLER BEAM AT

PATIENT

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PRINCIPLES OF

 A device with lead strips that is placed

 Used on larger body parts to reduce

 The degree of sharpness

 The degree of sharpness in an object’s

– Spatial resolution is the ability to image

 Best controlled by short exposure

 Misrepresentation of the true size or

 TUBE CLOSE TO THE PART

 PART FAR FROM THE CASSETTE

 Major influences: SID & OID

 If source is kept constant, OID will

 Misrepresentation of the shape of an

 When the part to be imaged – does

 If the Central Ray is not perpendicular

 Patient factors: size of pt., density of

SMALLER ANGLE – SMALLER BEAM AT

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