BNJ 20903: SOLID MECHANICS

CHAPTER 3: TORSION

LECTURER: DR. NORAINI BINTI MARSI

 CONTENTS
1. Torsional deformation of a circular shaft,
2. The Torsional Formula,
3. Power Transmission,
4. Angle of Twist,
5. Statically Indeterminate Torque-Loaded Members,
Today’s Objectives:
Students will be able to:
1. discuss effects of applying torsional loading to a long straight member
2. determine stress distribution within the member under torsional load
3. determine angle of twist when material behaves in a linear-elastic manner
4. discuss statically indeterminate analysis of shafts and tubes
5. discuss stress distributions and residual stress caused by torsional loadings
Topics:

• Torsional Deformation of a
Circular Shaft
• The Torsion Formula/Angle of Twist
• Power Transmission
•Statically Indeterminate Problems
APPLICATIONS

Notice the deformation

of the rectangular
element when this
rubber bar is subjected
to a torque
This tabular drive shaft for a truck was subjected to an overload
resulting in failure caused by yielding of the material
The drive shaft of this cutting machine must be designed to meet
the power requirements of its motor.
Oil wells are commonly drilled to
depths exceeding a thousand
meters. As a result, the total angle
of twist of a string of drill pipe
can be substantial and must be
computed.
When computing both the stress and the angle of twist of this soil
auger, it is necessary to consider the variable loading which acts
along its length
 INTRODUCTION

• Torsion is a moment that twists/deforms a member about its longitudinal

axis
• Its effect is of primary concern in the design of axles or drive shafts used
in vehicles and machinery
• By observation, if angle of rotation is small, length of shaft and its radius
remain unchanged

4.1 Torsional Deformation of a CS

Torsional Loads on Circular Shaft
• Interested in stresses and strains
of circular shafts subjected to
twisting couples or torques.
• Turbine exerts torque T on the
shaft.
• Shaft transmits the torque to the
generator.
• Generator creates an equal and
opposite torque T’.

4.1 Torsional Deformation of a CS

 TORSION
• Torsion refers to the twisting of a structural member when it is loaded by
moments/torques that produce rotation about the longitudinal axis of the
member
• The problem of transmitting a torque or rotary motion from one plane to
another is frequently encountered in machine design.
• Normally circular bars are used for such transmissions chiefly because, in
these bars, a plane section before twisting remains plane after twisting.

4.1 Torsional Deformation of a CS

Assumption to determining the relationship of the shearing stress in
circular shaft subjected to torsions:

 the material of the shaft is homogeneous

 the maximum shearing stress in the shaft is within the elastic limit
 the twist remains uniform along the whole length of the shaft
 the normal cross-section of the shaft which are plane and
circular before the twist remain same after the twist
 the straight radial line of any cross section of the shaft remain
straight.
 the distance between any two cross section of the shaft remain the
same

4.1 Torsional Deformation of a CS

 Torsional Deformation of Circular Bars
• Consider a bar of circular cross-section twisted by couples T at the ends.
Because the bar is subjected to torsion only, it is said to be in pure
torsion.
• Assuming that the end B is fixed, then the torque will cause end A to
rotate through a small angle Ф, known as the angle of twist. Thus the
longitudinal line AB on the surface of the bar will rotate through a small
angle to position A'B

4.1 Torsional Deformation of a CS

• Since the ends of the element remain
planar, the shear strain is equal to
angle of twist,.
• It follows that
r
BB '  L  r or  
L
• According to Hooke’s law, for linear elastic materials, shear stresses are
proportional to shear strains and the constant of proportionality is the
modulus of rigidity, G. Hence

  r  Gr  G
 G   G  G    
 L L r L
 Torsion Formula: Relationship between
T and t
• To determine the relationship between the applied
torque T and the stresses it produces, we consider
equilibrium of the internal forces and the externally
applied torque, T.
• Considering an elemental area dA within an elemental
ring of thickness dr situated at radius r from the
centre:

dF   x  2x  dx
dF=x dA r
dF=x·2x.dx dM  xdF
 
 x   x  2x  dx 
x  r 

x r 
  2x 3  dx
r

x   x 
M    2x 3  dx
r r
• Moments (M) from the internal stress distribution is
equal to the torque (T).

T    2x 3  dx
r

  2x 3  dx
r
J   2x 3  dx

T J
r
T  G
 
J r L
J= Momen Luas Kedua Kutub/ the polar moment of inertia of the
cross-sectional area
 Polar moment of inertia for some structure

i) Solid shaft ii) Hollow shaft

d D
2 2 TR
J   2x 3  dx J   2x 3  dx max 
0 d J
d TR 2
 2x 4  2 max  D
J  J  2x 4  2 Tr
 4  0
J  min 
d 4  4  d J
J 2
32
• Computation of Angle of Twist J

32

D4  d 4 
 T TL
 
L GJ GJ
 Torsion Formula
Torsional Formula – equation that relates the internal torque to the
shear stress distribution on the cross section of a circular shaft or
tube. This formula can be only used if the shaft is circular and the
material is homogeneous and behaves in a linear-elastic manner
Tc Tr
max  
J J
τmax = the maximum shear stress in the shaft, which occurs at the outer
surface
T = the resultant internal torque acting at the cross section. Its value is
determined from the method of sections and the equation of
moment
equilibrium applied about the shaft’s longitudinal axis
J = the polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area
c = the outer radius of the shaft 4.2 The Torsional Formula
Torsional Failure Mode
• Ductile materials generally fail in
shear. Brittle materials are weaker in
tension than shear.
• When subjected to torsion, a
ductile specimen breaks along a
plane of maximum shear, i.e., a
plane perpendicular to the shaft
axis.
• When subjected to torsion, a
brittle specimen breaks along
planes perpendicular to the
direction in which tension is a
maximum, i.e., along surfaces at
45o to the shaft axis.
The Torsional Formula
 IMPORTANT POINTS
• When a shaft having a circular cross section is subjected to a torque, the
cross section remains plane while radial lines rotate. This causes a shear
strain within the material that varies linearly along any radial line, from
zero at the axis of the shaft to a maximum at its outer boundary
• For linearly elastic homogeneous material, due to Hooke’s law, the
shear stress along any radial line of the shaft also varies linearly, from
zero at its axis to a maximum at its outer boundary. This maximum
shear stress must not exceed the proportional limit.
• Due to the complementary property of shear, the linear shear stress
distribution within the plane of the cross section is also distributed
along an adjacent axial plane of the shaft.
• The torsion formula is based on the requirement that the resultant
torque on the cross section is equal to the torque produced by the
linear shear stress distribution about the longitudinal axis of the shaft. It
is necessary that the shaft or tube have a circular cross section and that
it is made of homogeneous material which has linear-elastic behavior.
The Torsional Formula
 Procedure of Analysis
Internal loading:
• Section shaft perpendicular to its axis at point where shear stress is to be
determined
• Use free-body diagram and equations of equilibrium to obtain internal
torque at section
Section property:
• Compute polar moment of inertia and x-sectional area
• For solid section, J = c4/2
• For tube, J = (co4  ci4)/2
Shear stress:
• Specify radial distance , measured from centre of x-section to point
where shear stress is to be found
• Apply torsion formula,  = T /J or max = Tc/J
• Shear stress acts on x-section in direction that is always perpendicular to 
The Torsional Formula
 Sign Convention
Use right-hand rule: torque and angle of twist are positive when
thumb is directed outward from the shaft

Angle of Twist
 IMPORTANT POINT
• The angle of twist is determined by relating the applied
torque to the shear stress using the torsion formula, τ = Tρ/J
and relating the relative rotation to the shear strain using dφ
= γdx/ρ. Finally, these equations are combined using Hooke’s
law, τ = Gγ which yield angle of twist φ(phi) equation.
• Since Hooke’s law is used in the development of the formula
for the angle of twist, it is important that the applied torques
do not cause yielding of the material and that the material is
homogeneous and behaves in a linear-elastic manner.

Angle of Twist
 Example:
a) Determine the torque T which causes a maximum shearing stress of
70 MPa in the steel cylindrical shaft shown.
b) Determine the maximum shearing stress caused by a torque of
magnitude, T = 800 Nm.
 Solution:
Solution (a)
Tr
 max 
J
d 4    2r     2  0.018
4 4

J    1.65  10 7
32 32 32
 max J  70  106   1.65 10 7
T   641.67 Nm
r 0.018
Solution (b)
Tr
 max 
J
d 4    2r     2  0.018
4 4

J    1.65 10 7
32 32 32
800  0.018
 max   87.3MPa
1.65  10 7
 Example:
Knowing that the internal diameter of the
hollow shaft shown is d = 23 mm, determine
the maximum shearing stress caused by a
torque of magnitude T = 1.0 kNm.
 Solution:
40
d o  40mm  0.04m, ro   20mm  0.02m
2
23
d i  23mm  0.023m, ri   11 .5mm  0.0115 m
2
Tr
 max  o
J
J

32
 4

4 
d o  d i   0.04 4  0.0234   2.24 10  7 m 4
32

1.0  103 Nm  0.02m

 max   89.3MPa
2.24  10 m
7 4
Example:
 Solution:
0.04m
d o  40mm  0.04m, ro   0.02m
2
0.03m
d i  30mm  0.03m, ri   0.015m
2
J
32

 4
 
d o  d i   0.04 4  0.034   1.72  10  7 m 4
4

32
Tro
 max 
J
 max J 52  106 Nm 2 1.72  10 7 m 4
T   447.2 Nm
ro 0.02m
 Example:
The gears attached to the fixed-end steel shaft are subjected to the
torques shown below. If the shear modulus of elasticity is 80 GPa
and the shaft has a
diameter of 14mm,
determine the
displacement of the tooth
on gear A. The shaft turns
freely within the bearing at B
 Example
SOLUTION:
• Cut sections through shafts AB
and BC and perform static
equilibrium analyses to find
torque loadings.
• Apply elastic torsion formulas to
find minimum and maximum
stress on shaft BC.
Shaft BC is hollow with inner and outer diameters
of 90 mm and 120 mm, respectively. Shafts AB • Given allowable shearing stress
and CD are solid of diameter d. For the loading and applied torque, invert the
shown, determine (a) the minimum and maximum elastic torsion formula to find the
shearing stress in shaft BC, (b) the required required diameter.
diameter d of shafts AB and CD if the allowable
shearing stress in these shafts is 65 MPa.
 SOLUTION :

• Cut sections through shafts AB and BC

and perform static equilibrium
analysis to find torque loadings.

 M x  0   6 kN  m   TAB  M x  0   6 kN  m   14 kN  m   TBC

TAB  6 kN  m  TCD TBC  20 kN  m
• Apply elastic torsion formulas to • Given allowable shearing stress and
find minimum and maximum applied torque, invert the elastic
stress on shaft BC. torsion formula to find the required
diameter.

J
2

 4 4 
2
 
c2  c1   0.060 4   0.045 4   max 
Tc

Tc
65MPa 
6 kN  m
J  c4  c3
2 2
 13.92  10 6 m 4
c  38.9  103 m
TBC c2  20 kN  m  0.060 m 
 max   2   d  2c  77.8 mm
J 13.92  10 6 m 4
 86.2 MPa
 min c1  min 45 mm
 
 max c2 86.2 MPa 60 mm  max  86.2 MPa
 min  64.7 MPa  min  64.7 MPa
 Example
The stress distribution in a solid
shaft has been plotted along three
arbitrary radial lines as shown
below. Determine the resultant
internal torque at the section
 42
The Torsional Formula
 Power Transmission
Power transmitted by a circular shaft, P - depends upon the magnitude of
the torque and the speed of rotation, . Power is the rate at which work is
done.

P=T
where, P is power (watt)
T is torque (Nm)
 is angular speed (rad/s)

The angular speed is often expressed as the frequency, f, of rotation, i.e.

the number of revolutions per second. This means that

=2pf
where f is measured in Hetz (Hz) = s-1;
Power Transmission
 Design of Transmission Shaft
• Determine torque applied to shaft at
specified power and speed,
P  T  2fT
P P
T 
 2f
• Designer must select shaft
material and cross-section to • Find shaft cross-section which will not
meet performance specifications exceed the maximum allowable
without exceeding allowable shearing stress,
shearing stress. Tc
 max 
J
J  3 T
P  2fT  c   solid shafts
c 2  max
N
 2   T
 60 
J

 4 4
c2 2c2

c2  c1  T
 max
 hollow shafts

Power Transmission
 Example

How much power P(kW) may be transmitted by

a solid circular shaft of diameter 80 mm
turning at 0.75 Hz if the shear stress is not to
exceed 40 MPa?
 Example
A solid steel shaft AB
shown below is used to
transmit 3750 W from
the motor M to which it
is attached. If the shaft
rotates at ω = 175 rpm
and the steel has an
allowable shear stress of
τallow = 100MPa,
determine the required
diameter of the shaft to
the nearest mm.
Power Transmission
Power Transmission
Example:

A 1.6-m long tubular steel shaft (G = 77 GPa) of 42 mm outer diameter

d1 and 30 mm inner diameter d2 is to transmit 120 kW between a
turbine and a generator. Knowing that the allowable shearing stress is
65 MPa, determine the minimum frequency at which the shaft may
rotate.
One of two hollow drive shafts of an ocean liner is 38 m long, and its outer
and inner diameters are 400 mm and 200 mm respectively. The shaft is
made of a steel for which τ (all) = 60 MPa and G = 77 GPa. Knowing that
the maximum speed of rotation of the shaft is 2.75 Hz, determine
(a) the maximum power that can be transmitted by the one shaft to its
propeller,
(b) the corresponding angle of twist of the shaft.
Statically Indeterminate Shaft
• Given the shaft dimensions and the applied
torque, we would like to find the torque reactions
at A and B.
• From a free-body analysis of the shaft,

which is not sufficient to find the end torques.

The problem is statically indeterminate.
• Divide the shaft into two components which
must have compatible deformations,

• Substitute into the original equilibrium equation,

+ 120
4.5 Statically Indeterminate Prob.
 Procedure of Analysis
Equilibrium
• Draw a free-body diagram
• Write equations of equilibrium about axis of shaft
Compatibility
• Express compatibility conditions in terms of rotational
displacement caused by reactive torques
• Use torque-displacement relationship, such as
 = TL/JG
• Solve equilibrium and compatibility equations for unknown
torques

4.5 Statically Indeterminate Prob.

 Example 1
The solid steel shaft shown below has a diameter of 20 mm. If it
is subjected to the two torque, determine the reactions at the
fixed supports A and B

4.5 Statically Indeterminate Prob.

4.5 Statically Indeterminate Prob.
 Example 2
SOLUTION:
• Apply a static equilibrium analysis on
the two shafts to find a relationship
between TCD and T0 .
• Apply a kinematic analysis to relate
the angular rotations of the gears.
• Find the maximum allowable torque
Two solid steel shafts are connected on each shaft – choose the smallest.
by gears. Knowing that for each shaft • Find the corresponding angle of twist
G = 77 GPa and that the allowable for each shaft and the net angular
shearing stress is 55 MPa, determine rotation of end A.
(a) the largest torque T0 that may be
applied to the end of shaft AB, (b)
the corresponding angle through
which end A of shaft AB rotates.
4.5 Statically Indeterminate Prob.
 SOLUTION
• Apply a static equilibrium analysis on • Apply a kinematic analysis to relate
the two shafts to find a relationship the angular rotations of the gears.
between TCD and T0 .

59
4.5 Statically Indeterminate Prob.
• Find the T0 for the maximum • Find the corresponding angle of twist for
allowable torque on each shaft – each shaft and the net angular rotation of
choose the smallest. end A.