Hypothesis Tests Regarding A Parameter: © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 10
Hypothesis Tests
Regarding a
Parameter
© 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved

Section 10.1
The Language of
Hypothesis Testing

Objectives
1. Determine the null and alternative
hypotheses
2. Explain Type I and Type II errors
3. State conclusions to hypothesis tests
© 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved 10-3

Objective 1
• Determine the Null and Alternative
Hypotheses

A hypothesis is a statement regarding a
characteristic of one or more populations.
In this chapter, we look at hypotheses

regarding a single population parameter.

Examples of Claims Regarding a
Characteristic of a Single Population
• In 2008, 62% of American adults regularly volunteered their
time for charity work. A researcher believes that this percentage
is different today.
Source: ReadersDigest.com poll created on 2008/05/02

• In 2008, 62% of American adults regularly volunteered their time
for charity work. A researcher believes that this percentage is
different today.
• According to a study published in March, 2006 the mean length
of a phone call on a cellular telephone was 3.25 minutes. A
researcher believes that the mean length of a call has increased
since then.

• In 2008, 62% of American adults regularly volunteered their time
for charity work. A researcher believes that this percentage is
different today.
• According to a study published in March, 2006 the mean length
since then.
• Using an old manufacturing process, the standard deviation of the
amount of wine put in a bottle was 0.23 ounces. With new
equipment, the quality control manager believes the standard
deviation has decreased.

CAUTION!
We test these types of statements using sample

data because it is usually impossible or
impractical to gain access to the entire
population. If population data are available,
there is no need for inferential statistics.

Hypothesis testing is a procedure, based
on sample evidence and probability, used
to test statements regarding a
characteristic of one or more populations.

Steps in Hypothesis Testing
1. A statement is made regarding the nature of the

population.
2. Evidence (sample data) is collected in order to
test the statement.
3. The data is analyzed to assess the plausibility
of the statement.

The null hypothesis, denoted H0, is a
statement to be tested. The null
hypothesis is a statement of no change,
no effect or no difference. The null
hypothesis is assumed true until evidence
indicates otherwise. In this chapter, it
will be a statement regarding the value of
a population parameter.

The alternative hypothesis, denoted H1, is
a statement that we are trying to find
evidence to support. In this chapter, it
will be a statement regarding the value of
a population parameter.

In this chapter, there are three ways to set up the
null and alternative hypotheses:
1. Equal versus not equal hypothesis (two-tailed test)
H0: parameter = some value
H1: parameter ≠ some value

2. Equal versus less than (left-tailed test)
H1: parameter < some value

2. Equal versus less than (left-tailed test)
H1: parameter < some value
3. Equal versus greater than (right-tailed test)
H1: parameter > some value

“In Other Words”
The null hypothesis is a statement of “status

quo” or “no difference” and always contains
a statement of equality. The null hypothesis
is assumed to be true until we have evidence
to the contrary. The claim that we are trying
to gather evidence for determines the
alternative hypothesis.

Parallel Example 2: Forming Hypotheses
For each of the following claims, determine the null and alternative
hypotheses. State whether the test is two-tailed, left-tailed or
right-tailed.
a) In 2008, 62% of American adults regularly volunteered their
time for charity work. A researcher believes that this
percentage is different today.
b) According to a study published in March, 2006 the mean length
since then.
c) Using an old manufacturing process, the standard deviation of
the amount of wine put in a bottle was 0.23 ounces. With new
equipment, the quality control manager believes the standard
deviation has decreased.
Solution
a) In 2008, 62% of American adults regularly volunteered
their time for charity work. A researcher believes that this
The hypothesis deals with a population proportion, p. If
the percentage participating in charity work is no different
than in 2008, it will be 0.62 so the null hypothesis is H0:
p=0.62.
Since the researcher believes that the percentage is
different today, the alternative hypothesis is a two-tailed
hypothesis: H1: p≠0.62.

Solution
b) According to a study published in March, 2006 the mean
length of a phone call on a cellular telephone was 3.25
minutes. A researcher believes that the mean length of a
call has increased since then.
The hypothesis deals with a population mean, . If the
mean call length on a cellular phone is no different than in
2006, it will be 3.25 minutes so the null hypothesis is H0:
=3.25.
Since the researcher believes that the mean call length has
increased, the alternative hypothesis is: H1:  > 3.25, a
right-tailed test.

Solution
c) Using an old manufacturing process, the standard
deviation of the amount of wine put in a bottle was 0.23
ounces. With new equipment, the quality control manager
believes the standard deviation has decreased.
The hypothesis deals with a population standard deviation,
. If the standard deviation with the new equipment has
not changed, it will be 0.23 ounces so the null hypothesis
is H0:  = 0.23.
Since the quality control manager believes that the
standard deviation has decreased, the alternative
hypothesis is: H1:  < 0.23, a left-tailed test.

Objective 2
• Explain Type I and Type II Errors

Four Outcomes from Hypothesis Testing
1. We reject the null hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is

true. This decision would be correct.


2. We do not reject the null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is


3. We reject the null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is true.
This decision would be incorrect. This type of error is called a
Type I error.


3. We reject the null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is true.
This decision would be incorrect. This type of error is called a
Type I error.
4. We do not reject the null hypothesis when the alternative
hypothesis is true. This decision would be incorrect. This type
of error is called a Type II error.

Parallel Example 3: Type I and Type II Errors
For each of the following claims, explain what it would mean to

make a Type I error. What would it mean to make a Type II
error?
a) In 2008, 62% of American adults regularly volunteered their
time for charity work. A researcher believes that this
b) According to a study published in March, 2006 the mean length
since then.

Solution
a) In 2008, 62% of American adults regularly volunteered
their time for charity work. A researcher believes that this
A Type I error is made if the researcher concludes that
p≠0.62 when the true proportion of Americans 18 years or
older who participated in some form of charity work is
currently 62%.
A Type II error is made if the sample evidence leads the
researcher to believe that the current percentage of
Americans 18 years or older who participated in some
form of charity work is still 62% when, in fact, this
percentage differs from 62%.

Solution
b) According to a study published in March, 2006 the mean
minutes. A researcher believes that the mean length of a
call has increased since then.
A Type I error occurs if the sample evidence leads the
researcher to conclude that >3.25 when, in fact, the
actual mean call length on a cellular phone is still 3.25
minutes.
A Type II error occurs if the researcher fails to reject the
hypothesis that the mean length of a phone call on a
cellular phone is 3.25 minutes when, in fact, it is longer
than 3.25 minutes.

 = P(Type I Error)
= P(rejecting H0 when H0 is true)
 = P(Type II Error)
= P(not rejecting H0 when H1 is true)

The probability of making a Type I error,
, is chosen by the researcher before the
sample data is collected.
The level of significance, , is the

probability of making a Type I error.

“In Other Words”
As the probability of a Type I error

increases, the probability of a Type II
error decreases, and vice-versa.

Objective 3
• State Conclusions to Hypothesis Tests

CAUTION!
We never “accept” the null hypothesis because

without having access to the entire population,
we don’t know the exact value of the
parameter stated in the null. Rather, we say
that we do not reject the null hypothesis. This
is just like the court system. We never declare
a defendant “innocent”, but rather say the
defendant is “not guilty”.

Parallel Example 4: Stating the Conclusion
According to a study published in March, 2006 the mean

minutes. A researcher believes that the mean length of
a call has increased since then.
• Suppose the sample evidence indicates that the null
hypothesis should be rejected. State the wording of
the conclusion.
a) Suppose the sample evidence indicates that the null
hypothesis should not be rejected. State the wording
of the conclusion.

Solution
a) Suppose the sample evidence indicates that the null

hypothesis should be rejected. State the wording of
the conclusion.
The statement in the alternative hypothesis is that the
mean call length is greater than 3.25 minutes. Since the
null hypothesis (=3.25) is rejected, we conclude that
there is sufficient evidence to conclude that the mean
length of a phone call on a cell phone is greater than 3.25
minutes.

Solution
b) Suppose the sample evidence indicates that the null

hypothesis should not be rejected. State the wording
of the conclusion.
Since the null hypothesis (=3.25) is not rejected, we
conclude that there is insufficient evidence to conclude
that the mean length of a phone call on a cell phone is
greater than 3.25 minutes. In other words, the sample
evidence is consistent with the mean call length equaling
3.25 minutes.

Section 10.2
Hypothesis Tests
for a Population
Mean-Population
Standard Deviation
Known

Objectives
1. Explain the logic of hypothesis testing
2. Test the hypotheses about a population mean with 
known using the classical approach
3. Test hypotheses about a population mean with 
known using P-values
4. Test hypotheses about a population mean with 
known using confidence intervals
5. Distinguish between statistical significance and
practical significance.

Objective 1
• Explain the Logic of Hypothesis Testing

To test hypotheses regarding the population mean
assuming the population standard deviation is
known, two requirements must be satisfied:
1. A simple random sample is obtained.
2. The population from which the sample is
drawn is normally distributed or the sample
size is large (n≥30).
If these requirements are met, the distribution of
x is normal with mean  and standard

deviation .
n
Recall the researcher who believes that the mean
length of a cell phone call has increased from its
March, 2006 mean of 3.25 minutes. Suppose we
take a simple random sample of 36 cell phone calls.
Assume the standard deviation of the phone call
lengths is known to be 0.78 minutes. What is the
sampling distribution of the sample mean?
Answer: x is normally distributed with mean 3.25

and standard deviation 0.78 36  0.13.

Suppose the sample of 36 calls resulted in a sample
mean of 3.56 minutes. Do the results of this
sample suggest that the researcher is correct? In
other words, would it be unusual to obtain a
sample mean of 3.56 minutes from a population
whose mean is 3.25 minutes? What is
convincing or statistically significant evidence?

When observed results are unlikely under
the assumption that the null hypothesis is
true, we say the result is statistically
significant. When results are found to be
statistically significant, we reject the null
hypothesis.

The Logic of the Classical Approach
One criterion we may use for sufficient evidence

for rejecting the null hypothesis is if the sample
mean is too many standard deviations from the
assumed (or status quo) population mean. For
example, we may choose to reject the null
hypothesis if our sample mean is more than 2
standard deviations above the population mean
of 3.25 minutes.

Recall that our simple random sample of 36 calls
resulted in a sample mean of 3.56 minutes with
standard deviation of 0.13. Thus, the sample
mean is
3.56  3.25
z  2.38
0.13
standard deviations above the hypothesized mean
of 3.25 minutes.

Therefore, using our criterion, we would reject the
null hypothesis and conclude that the mean
cellular call length is greater than 3.25 minutes.

Why does it make sense to reject the null
hypothesis if the sample mean is more than 2
standard deviations above the hypothesized mean?

If the null hypothesis were true, then 1-
0.0228=0.9772=97.72% of all sample
means will be less than
3.25+2(0.13)=3.51.

Because sample means greater than 3.51 are unusual if
the population mean is 3.25, we are inclined to believe
the population mean is greater than 3.25.
The Logic of the P-Value Approach
A second criterion we may use for sufficient

evidence to support the alternative hypothesis is
to compute how likely it is to obtain a sample
mean at least as extreme as that observed from a
population whose mean is equal to the value
assumed by the null hypothesis.

We can compute the probability of obtaining a
sample mean of 3.56 or more using the normal
model.

Recall
3.56  3.25
z  2.38
0.13
So, we compute
P x  3.56  P(Z  2.38)  0.0087.
The 
probability of obtaining a sample mean of 3.56
minutes or more from a population whose mean is
3.25 minutes is 0.0087. This means that fewer than
 1 sample in 100 will give us a mean as high or higher
than 3.56 if the population mean really is 3.25
minutes. Since this outcome is so unusual, we take
this as evidence against the null hypothesis.

Premise of Testing a Hypothesis
Using the P-value Approach
Assuming that H0 is true, if the probability of

getting a sample mean as extreme or more
extreme than the one obtained is small, we
reject the null hypothesis.

Objective 2
• Test Hypotheses about a Population Mean
with  Known Using the Classical Approach

Testing Hypotheses Regarding the
Population Mean with σ Known Using the
Classical Approach
To test hypotheses regarding the population
mean with  known, we can use the steps
that follow, provided that two requirements
are satisfied:
1. The sample is obtained using simple random
sampling.
2. The sample has no outliers, and the
population from which the sample is drawn
is normally distributed or the sample size is
large (n ≥ 30).
Step 1: Determine the null and alternative
hypotheses. Again, the hypotheses can
be structured in one of three ways:

Step 2: Select a level of significance, , based
on the seriousness of making a
Type I error.

Step 3: Provided that the population from which the
sample is drawn is normal or the sample size
is large, and the population standard
deviation, , is known, the distribution of the
sample mean, x , 0 is normal with mean
and standard deviation  .
Therefore, n
x 
z0  0

 
n 
represents the number of standard deviations that
the sample mean is from the assumed mean. This
value is called the test statistic.
 © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved 10-58
Step 4: The level of significance is used to
determine the critical value. The critical
region represents the maximum number
of standard deviations that the sample
mean can be from 0 before the null
hypothesis is rejected. The critical
region or rejection region is the set of
all
values such that the null hypothesis is
rejected.
Two-Tailed
(critical value)
Left-Tailed
(critical value)

Right-Tailed
(critical value)

Step 5: Compare the critical value with the test
statistic:

Step 6: State the conclusion.

The procedure is robust, which means that
minor departures from normality will not
adversely affect the results of the test.
However, for small samples, if the data have
outliers, the procedure should not be used.

Parallel Example 2: The Classical Approach to Hypothesis
Testing
A can of 7-Up states that the contents of the can are 355 ml.
A quality control engineer is worried that the filling machine
is miscalibrated. In other words, she wants to make sure the
machine is not under- or over-filling the cans. She randomly
selects 9 cans of 7-Up and measures the contents. She
obtains the following data.
351
360 358 356 359
358
355 361 352
Is there evidence at the =0.05 level of significance to
support the quality control engineer’s claim? Prior
experience indicates that =3.2ml.
Source: Michael McCraith, Joliet Junior College

Solution
The quality control engineer wants to know if the mean

content is different from 355 ml. Since the sample size
is small, we must verify that the data come from a
population that is approximately normal with no
outliers.

Normal Probability Plot for Contents (ml)
Assumption of normality appears reasonable.

No outliers.

Solution
Step 1: H0: =355 versus H1: ≠355

Step 2: The level of significance is =0.05.
Step 3: The sample mean is calculated to be 356.667.
The test statistic is then
356.667  355
z0   1.56
3.2 9
The sample mean of 356.667 is 1.56 standard deviations
above the assumed mean of 355 ml.
Solution
Step 4: Since this is a two-tailed test, we determine the

critical values at the =0.05 level of
significance to be -z0.025= -1.96 and z0.025=1.96
Step 5: Since the test statistic, z0=1.56, is less than the
critical value 1.96, we fail to reject the null
hypothesis.
Step 6: There is insufficient evidence at the =0.05
level of significance to conclude that the mean
content differs from 355 ml.

Objective 3
with  Known Using P-values.

A P-value is the probability of observing a
sample statistic as extreme or more extreme
than the one observed under the assumption
that the null hypothesis is true.

Testing Hypotheses Regarding the
Population Mean with σ Known Using
P-values
To test hypotheses regarding the population mean
with  known, we can use the steps that follow
to compute the P-value, provided that two
requirements are satisfied:
sampling.
2. The sample has no outliers, and the population
from which the sample is drawn is normally
distributed or the sample size is large (n ≥ 30).

Step 1: A claim is made regarding the population
mean. The claim is used to determine the
null and alternative hypotheses. Again,
the hypothesis can be structured in one of
three ways:

Type I error.

Step 3: Compute the test statistic,
x  0
z0 

n


Step 4: Determine the P-value

Step 5: Reject the null hypothesis if the
P-value is less than the level of
significance, . The comparison of
the P-value and the level of
significance is called the
decision rule.

Parallel Example 3: The P-Value Approach to Hypothesis
Testing: Left-Tailed, Large Sample
The volume of a stock is the number of shares traded in

the stock in a day. The mean volume of Apple stock in
2007 was 35.14 million shares with a standard deviation
of 15.07 million shares. A stock analyst believes that
the volume of Apple stock has increased since then. He
randomly selects 40 trading days in 2008 and determines
the sample mean volume to be 41.06 million shares.
Test the analyst’s claim at the =0.10 level of
significance using P-values.

Solution
Step 1: The analyst wants to know if the stock volume

has increased. This is a right-tailed test with
H0: =35.14 versus H1: >35.14.
We want to know the probability of obtaining a
sample mean of 41.06 or more from a
population where the mean is assumed to be
35.14.

Solution
Step 3: The test statistic is

41.06  35.14
z0   2.48
15.07 40

Solution
Step 4: P(Z > z0)=P(Z > 2.48)=0.0066.

The probability of obtaining a sample mean of
41.06 or more from a population whose mean is
35.14 is 0.0066.

Solution
Step 5: Since the P-value= 0.0066 is less than the level

of significance, 0.10, we reject the null
hypothesis.
Step 6: There is sufficient evidence to reject the null
hypothesis and to conclude that the mean
volume of Apple stock is greater than
35.14 million shares.

Parallel Example 4: The P-Value Approach of Hypothesis
Testing: Two-Tailed, Small Sample
351 360 358 356 359 358 355 361 352
Use the P-value approach to determine if there is evidence
at the =0.05 level of significance to support the quality
control engineer’s claim. Prior experience indicates that
=3.2ml.
Source: Michael McCraith, Joliet Junior College

Solution
The quality control engineer wants to know if the mean

content is different from 355 ml. Since we have already
verified that the data come from a population that is
approximately normal with no outliers, we will continue
with step 1.

Solution
Step 1: The quality control engineer wants to know if

the content has changed. This is a two-tailed
test with
H0: =355 versus H1: ≠355.

Solution

Step 3: Recall that the sample mean is 356.667. The
test statistic is then
356.667  355
z0   1.56
3.2 9

Solution
Step 4: Since this is a two-tailed test,

P-value = P(Z < -1.56 or Z > 1.56) =
2*(0.0594)=0.1188.
The probability of obtaining a sample mean that
is more than 1.56 standard deviations away from
the assumed mean of 355 ml is 0.1188.

Solution
Step 5: Since the P-value= 0.1188 is greater than the

level of significance, 0.05, we fail to reject the
null hypothesis.
Step 6: There is insufficient evidence to conclude that
the mean content of 7-Up cans differs from
355 ml.

One advantage of using P-values over the
classical approach in hypothesis testing is that
P-values provide information regarding the
strength of the evidence. Another is that P-
values are interpreted the same way regardless
of the type of hypothesis test being performed.
the lower the P-value, the stronger the
evidence against the statement in the null
hypothesis.

Objective 4
with  Known Using Confidence Intervals

When testing H0:  = 0 versus H1:  ≠ 0,
if a (1-)·100% confidence interval contains
0, we do not reject the null hypothesis.
However, if the confidence interval does not
contain 0, we have sufficient evidence that
supports the statement in the alternative
hypothesis and conclude that  ≠ 0 at the
level of significance, .

Parallel Example 6: Testing Hypotheses about a Population
Mean Using a Confidence Interval
Test the hypotheses presented in Parallel Examples 2 and

4 at the =0.05 level of significance by constructing a
95% confidence interval about , the population mean can
content.

Solution
3.2
Lower bound: 356.667 1.96   354.58
9
3.2
Upper bound: 356.667  1.96   358.76
9

We are 95% confident that the mean can content is

between
 354.6 ml and 358.8 ml. Since the mean stated in
the null hypothesis is in this interval, there is insufficient
evidence to reject the hypothesis that the mean can
content is 355 ml.

Objective 5
• Distinguish between Statistical Significance
and Practical Significance

When a large sample size is used in a hypothesis
test, the results could be statistically
significant even though the difference between
the sample statistic and mean stated in the null
hypothesis may have no practical significance.

Practical significance refers to the idea that,
while small differences between the statistic
and parameter stated in the null hypothesis are
statistically significant, the difference may not
be large enough to cause concern or be
considered important.

Parallel Example 7: Statistical versus Practical Significance
In 2003, the average age of a mother at the time of her

first childbirth was 25.2. To determine if the average age
has increased, a random sample of 1200 mothers is taken
and is found to have a sample mean age of 25.5.
Assuming a standard deviation of 4.8, determine whether
the mean age has increased using a significance level of
=0.05.

Solution
Step 1: To determine whether the mean age has
increased, this is a right-tailed test with
H0: =25.2 versus H1: >25.2.
Step 3: Recall that the sample mean is 25.5. The
test statistic is then
25.5  25.2
z0   2.17
4.8 1200

Solution
Step 4: Since this is a right-tailed test,
P-value = P(Z > 2.17) = 0.015.
The probability of obtaining a sample mean that
is more than 2.17 standard deviations above
the assumed mean of 25.2 is 0.015.
Step 5: Because the P-value is less than the level of
significance, 0.05, we reject the null
hypothesis.

Solution
Step 6: There is sufficient evidence at the 0.05
significance level to conclude that the mean age
of a mother at the time of her first childbirth is
greater than 25.2.
Although we found the difference in age to be
significant, there is really no practical significance in the
age difference (25.2 versus 25.5).
Large sample sizes can lead to statistically significant
results while the difference between the statistic and
parameter is not enough to be considered practically
significant.
Section 10.3
Hypothesis Tests
for a Population
Mean- Population
Standard Deviation
Unknown

Objectives
1. Test the hypotheses about a population mean

with  unknown

mean assuming the population standard
deviation is unknown, we use the t-
distribution rather than the Z-distribution.
When we replace  with s,
x 
s
n
follows Student’s t-distribution with n-1
degrees of freedom.
 10-108
Properties of the t-Distribution
1. The t-distribution is different for different

degrees of freedom.


degrees of freedom.
2. The t-distribution is centered at 0 and is
symmetric about 0.


degrees of freedom.
2. The t-distribution is centered at 0 and is
symmetric about 0.
3. The area under the curve is 1. Because of the
symmetry, the area under the curve to the right
of 0 equals the area under the curve to the left
of 0 equals 1/2.

4. As t increases (or decreases) without bound, the

graph approaches, but never equals, 0.

4. As t increases (or decreases) without bound, the

graph approaches, but never equals, 0.
5. The area in the tails of the t-distribution is a
little greater than the area in the tails of the
standard normal distribution because using s as
an estimate of  introduces more variability to
the t-statistic.

6. As the sample size n increases, the density

curve of t gets closer to the standard normal
density curve. This result occurs because as
the sample size increases, the values of s get
closer to the values of  by the Law of Large
Numbers.

Objective 1
• Test hypotheses about a population mean with
 unknown

Testing Hypotheses Regarding a
Population Mean with σ Unknown
mean with  unknown, we use the following
steps, provided that:
sampling.
2. The sample has no outliers, and the
population from which the sample is drawn
is normally distributed or the sample size is
large (n≥30).

hypotheses. The hypotheses can be
structured in one of three ways:

Type I error.

Step 3: Compute the test statistic
x  0
t0 
s
n
which follows Student’s t-distribution
with n-1 degrees of freedom.


Classical Approach
Step 4: Use Table VI to determine the critical

value using n-1 degrees of freedom.

Classical Approach
Two-Tailed

Classical Approach
Left-Tailed

Classical Approach
Right-Tailed

Classical Approach

statistic:

P-Value Approach
Step 4: Use Table VI to estimate the P-value

using n-1 degrees of freedom.

P-Value Approach
Two-Tailed

P-Value Approach
Left-Tailed

P-Value Approach
Right-Tailed

P-Value Approach
Step 5: If the P-value < , reject the null

hypothesis.


Parallel Example 1: Testing a Hypothesis about a
Population Mean, Large Sample
Assume the resting metabolic rate (RMR) of healthy males

in complete silence is 5710 kJ/day. Researchers measured
the RMR of 45 healthy males who were listening to calm
classical music and found their mean RMR to be 5708.07
with a standard deviation of 992.05.
At the =0.05 level of significance, is there evidence to
conclude that the mean RMR of males listening to calm
classical music is different than 5710 kJ/day?

Solution
We assume that the RMR of healthy males is 5710

kJ/day. This is a two-tailed test since we are interested
in determining whether the RMR differs from 5710
kJ/day.
Since the sample size is large, we follow the steps for
testing hypotheses about a population mean for large
samples.

Solution
Step 1: H0: =5710 versus H1: ≠5710

Step 3: The sample mean is x = 5708.07 and the
sample standard deviation is s=992.05. The test statistic
is

5708.07  5710
t0   0.013
992.05 45

Solution: Classical Approach

significance with n-1=45-1=44 degrees of
freedom to be approximately -t0.025= -2.021 and
t0.025=2.021.
Step 5: Since the test statistic, t0=-0.013, is between

the critical values, we fail to reject the null
hypothesis.

Solution: P-Value Approach
Step 4: Since this is a two-tailed test, the P-value is the

area under the t-distribution with n-1=45-1=44
degrees of freedom to the left of -t0.025= -0.013
and to the right of t0.025=0.013. That is, P-value
= P(t < -0.013) + P(t > 0.013) = 2 P(t > 0.013).
0.50 < P-value.
Step 5: Since the P-value is greater than the level of
significance (0.05<0.5), we fail to reject the
null hypothesis.
Solution
Step 6: There is insufficient evidence at the =0.05

level of significance to conclude that the mean
RMR of males listening to calm classical music
differs from 5710 kJ/day.

Population Mean, Small Sample
According to the United States Mint, quarters weigh 5.67

grams. A researcher is interested in determining whether the
“state” quarters have a weight that is different from 5.67
grams. He randomly selects 18 “state” quarters, weighs
them and obtains the following data.
5.70 5.67 5.73 5.61 5.70 5.67
5.65 5.62 5.73 5.65 5.79 5.73
5.77 5.71 5.70 5.76 5.73 5.72
At the =0.05 level of significance, is there evidence to
conclude that state quarters have a weight different than
5.67 grams?
Solution
We assume that the weight of the state quarters is 5.67

grams. This is a two-tailed test since we are interested
in determining whether the weight differs from 5.67
grams.
Since the sample size is small, we must verify that the
data come from a population that is normally distributed
with no outliers before proceeding to Steps 1-6.

Assumption of normality appears reasonable.
No outliers.

Solution
Step 1: H0: =5.67 versus H1: ≠5.67

Step 3: From the data, the sample mean is calculated to
be 5.7022 and the sample standard deviation is
s=0.0497. The test statistic is
5.7022  5.67
t0   2.75
.0497 18


significance with n-1=18-1=17 degrees of
freedom to be -t0.025= -2.11 and t0.025=2.11.
Step 5: Since the test statistic, t0=2.75, is greater than

the critical value 2.11, we reject the null
hypothesis.

Step 4: Since this is a two-tailed test, the P-value is the

area under the t-distribution with n-1=18-1=17
degrees of freedom to the left of -t0.025= -2.75
and to the right of t0.025=2.75. That is, P-value
= P(t < -2.75) + P(t > 2.75) = 2 P(t > 2.75).
0.01 < P-value < 0.02.
Step 5: Since the P-value is less than the level of
significance (0.02<0.05), we reject the null
hypothesis.
Solution
Step 6: There is sufficient evidence at the =0.05 level

of significance to conclude that the mean
weight of the state quarters differs from
5.67 grams.

Summary
Which test to use?

Provided that the population from which the sample is
drawn is normal or that the sample size is large,
• if  is known, use the Z-test procedures from
Section 10.2
• if  is unknown, use the t-test procedures from this
Section.

Section 10.4
Hypothesis Tests
for a Population
Proportion

Objectives
1. Test the hypotheses about a population

proportion
2. Test hypotheses about a population
proportion using the binomial probability
distribution.

Objective 1
• Test hypotheses about a population proportion.

Recall:
• The best point estimate of p, the proportion

of the population with a certain
characteristic, is given by
x
pˆ 
n
where x is the number of individuals in the
sample with the specified characteristic and n
is the sample size.


Recall:
• The sampling distribution of pˆis approximately
normal, with mean  pˆ  p and standard deviation
p(1 p)
 pˆ 
n

provided that the following requirements are
satisfied: 
1. The sample is a simple random sample.
2. np(1-p) ≥ 10.
3. The sampled values are independent of each other.

Testing Hypotheses Regarding a
Population Proportion, p

proportion, we can use the steps that follow,
provided that:
1. The sample is obtained by simple random
sampling.
2. np0(1-p0) ≥ 10.
3. The sampled values are independent of each
other.


Type I error.

pˆ  p0
z0 
p0 (1 p0 )
n
Note: We use p0 in computing the standard
error rather than pˆ . This is because, when we
test ahypothesis, the null hypothesis is always
assumed true.
 © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved 10-154

Classical Approach
Step 4: Use Table V to determine the critical

value.

Classical Approach
Two-Tailed
(critical value)

Classical Approach
Left-Tailed
(critical value)

Classical Approach
Right-Tailed
(critical value)

Classical Approach

statistic:

P-Value Approach
Step 4: Use Table V to estimate the P-value.

P-Value Approach
Two-Tailed

P-Value Approach
Left-Tailed

P-Value Approach
Right-Tailed

P-Value Approach

hypothesis.


Population Proportion: Large Sample Size
In 1997, 46% of Americans said they did not trust the

media “when it comes to reporting the news fully,
accurately and fairly”. In a 2007 poll of 1010 adults
nationwide, 525 stated they did not trust the media. At
the =0.05 level of significance, is there evidence to
support the claim that the percentage of Americans that
do not trust the media to report fully and accurately has
increased since 1997?
Source: Gallup Poll

Solution
We want to know if p>0.46. First, we must verify the

requirements to perform the hypothesis test:
1. This is a simple random sample.
2. np0(1-p0)=1010(0.46)(1-0.46)=250.8>10
3. Since the sample size is less than 5% of the
population size, the assumption of independence is
met.

Solution
Step 1: H0: p=0.46 versus H1: p>0.46
525
Step 3: The sample proportion is pˆ  1010  0.52 .
The test statistic is then
0.52 
0.46
z0   3.83
0.46(1 0.46)
1010

Step 4: Since this is a right-tailed test, we

determine the critical value at the
=0.05 level of significance to be
z0.05= 1.645.
Step 5: Since the test statistic, z0=3.83, is

greater than the critical value 1.645,
we reject the null hypothesis.

Step 4: Since this is a right-tailed test, the P-

value is the area under the standard
normal distribution to the right of the
test statistic z0=3.83. That is, P-value =
P(Z > 3.83)≈0.
Step 5: Since the P-value is less than the level
of significance, we reject the null
hypothesis.
Solution
Step 6: There is sufficient evidence at the

=0.05 level of significance to
conclude that the percentage of Americans
that do not trust the media to report fully
and accurately has increased since 1997.

Objective 2
• Test hypotheses about a population proportion
using the binomial probability distribution.

For the sampling distribution of pˆ to be
approximately normal, we require np(1-p) be
at least 10. What if this requirement is not
met?


Parallel Example 4: Hypothesis Test for a Population
Proportion: Small Sample Size
In 2006, 10.5% of all live births in the United

States were to mothers under 20 years of age.
A sociologist claims that births to mothers
under 20 years of age is decreasing. She
conducts a simple random sample of 34 births
and finds that 3 of them were to mothers under
20 years of age. Test the sociologist’s claim at
the  = 0.01 level of significance.

Proportion: Small Sample Size
Approach:
Step 1: Determine the null and alternative hypotheses
Step 2: Check whether np0(1-p0) is greater than or
equal to 10, where p0 is the proportion stated in
the null hypothesis. If it is, then the sampling
ˆ
p
distribution of is approximately normal and
we can use the steps for a large sample size.
Otherwise we use the following Steps 3 and 4.

Proportion: Small Sample
Size
Approach:
Step 3: Compute the P-value. For right-tailed tests, the
P-value is the probability of obtaining x or
more successes. For left-tailed tests, the P-
value is the probability of obtaining x or fewer
successes. The P-value is always computed
with the proportion given in the null hypothesis.
Step 4: If the P-value is less than the level of
significance, , we reject the null hypothesis.

Solution
Step 1: H0: p=0.105 versus H1: p<0.105

Step 2: From the null hypothesis, we have
p0=0.105. There were 34 mothers
sampled, so np0(1-p0)=3.57<10. Thus,
ˆ
p
the sampling distribution of is not
approximately normal.

Solution
Step 3: Let X represent the number of live births in
the United States to mothers under 20 years
of age. We have x=3 successes in n=34
ˆ = 3/34= 0.088. We want to
trials so p
determine whether this result is unusual if
the population mean is truly 0.105. Thus,
P-value = P(X ≤ 3 assuming p=0.105 )
 = P(X = 0) + P(X =1)
+ P(X =2) + P(X = 3)
= 0.51
Solution
Step 4: The P-value = 0.51 is greater than the

level of significance so we do not reject
H0. There is insufficient evidence to
conclude that the percentage of live
births in the United States to
mothers under the age of 20 has decreased
below the 2006 level of 10.5%.

Section 10.5
Hypothesis Tests
for a Population
Standard Deviation

Objective
1. Test hypotheses about a population standard
deviation

Chi-Square Distribution
If a simple random sample of size n is obtained

from a normally distributed population with
mean  and standard deviation , then
(n 1)s 2
2 
2
where s2 is a sample variance has a chi-square

distribution with n-1 degrees of freedom.


Characteristics of the Chi-Square
Distribution
1. It is not symmetric.
2. The shape of the chi-square distribution
depends on the degrees of freedom, just as
with Student’s t-distribution.
3. As the number of degrees of freedom
increases, the chi-square distribution
becomes more nearly symmetric.
4. The values of 2 are nonnegative, i.e., the
values of 2 are greater than or equal to 0.

Objective 1
• Test hypotheses about a population standard
deviation.

Testing Hypotheses about a Population
Variance or Standard Deviation
To test hypotheses about the population variance

or standard deviation, we can use the
following steps, provided that
sampling.
2. The population is normally distributed.


on the seriousness of making a Type I
error.

(n 1)s 2
  2
0
 02


Classical Approach
Step 4: Use Table VII to determine the critical

value using n-1 degrees of freedom.

Classical Approach
Two-Tailed

Classical Approach
Left -Tailed

Classical Approach
Right-Tailed

Classical Approach

statistic:

P-Value Approach
Step 4: Use Table VII to determine the approximate

P-value for a left-tailed or right-tailed test
by determining the area under the chi-
square distribution with n-1 degrees of
freedom to the left (for a left-tailed test) or
right (for a right-tailed test) of the test
statistic. For two-tailed tests, we
recommend the use of technology
or confidence intervals.

P-Value Approach
Left-Tailed

P-Value Approach
Right-Tailed

P-Value Approach

hypothesis.


CAUTION!
The procedures in this section are not robust.

Population Standard Deviation
351 360 358 356 359
358 355 361 352
In section 9.2, we assumed the population standard deviation
was 3.2. Test the claim that the population standard
deviation, , is greater than 3.2 ml at the =0.05
level of significance.
Solution
Step 1: H0:  =3.2 versus H1:  >3.2.

This is a right-tailed test.
Step 3: From the data, the sample standard
deviation is computed to be s=3.464.
The test statistic is
(9 1)(3.464) 2
0 
2
2
 9.374
3.2
Step 4: Since this is a right-tailed test, we

determine the critical value at the
=0.05 level of significance with 9-1=8
degrees of freedom to be 20.05= 15.507.

Step 5: Since the test statistic, 0  9.374 , is less
2
than the critical value, 15.507, we fail to


Step 4: Since this is a right-tailed test, the P- value

is the area under the 2-distribution with
9-1=8 to the right of the test statistic
 0  9.374 . That is,
2
P-value = P(2 > 9.37)>0.10.

Step 5: Since the P-value is greater than the level
 of significance, we fail to reject the null
hypothesis.
Solution:
Step 6: There is insufficient evidence at the

=0.05 level of significance to conclude
that the standard deviation of the can
content of 7-Up is greater than 3.2 ml.

Section 10.6
Putting It Together:
Which Method Do I
Use?

Objective
1. Determine the appropriate hypothesis test to
perform

Objective 1
• Determine the Appropriate Hypothesis Test to
Perform

Section 10.7
The Probability of a
Type II Error and
the Power of the
Test

Objective
1. Determine the probability of making a
Type II error
2. Compute the power of the test

Objective 1
• Determine the Probability of Making a Type II
Error

The Probability of a Type II Error
Step 1: Determine the sample mean that

separates the rejection region
from the nonrejection region.

Step 2: Draw a normal curve whose mean is a
particular value from the alternative
hypothesis with the sample mean(s)
found in Step 1 labeled.

Step 3:

Step 3:

Step 3:

Parallel Example 1: Computing the Probability of a
Type II Error
In Section 10.2, we tested the hypothesis that the

mean trade volume of Apple stock was greater
than 35.14 million shares, H0: =35.14 versus
H1: >35.14, based upon a random sample of size
n=40 with the population standard deviation, ,
assumed to be 15.07 million shares at the
=0.1 level of significance. Compute the
probability of a type II error given that the
population mean is =40.62.
Solution
Step 1: Since z0.9=1.28, we let Z=1.28,

0=35.14,  =15.07, and n=40 to find the
sample mean that separates the rejection
region from the nonrejection region:
x  35.14
1.28   x  38.19
15.07
40
For any sample mean less than 38.19, we do not

Solution
Step 2:

Solution
Step 2:

Solution
Step 3: P(Type II error)
= P(do not reject H0 given H1 is true)
= P( x < 38.19 given that  =40.62)
 
 38.19  40.62 
= PZ   P(Z  1.02)
 15.07 
  
40
= 0.1539
Objective 2
• Compute the Power of the Test

The complement of , 1- , is the probability of
rejecting the null hypothesis when the
alternative hypothesis is true. The value of
1-  is referred to as the power of the test.
The higher the power of the test, the more
likely the test will reject the null when the
alternative hypothesis is true.

Parallel Example 2: Computing the Power of the Test
Compute the power for the Apple stock example.

Solution
The power = 1- =1-0.1539 = 0.8461.

There is a 84.61% chance of rejecting the
null hypothesis when the true population
mean is 40.62.

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Chapter 10

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© 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved

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In this chapter, we look at hypotheses

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Source: ReadersDigest.com poll created on 2008/05/02

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We test these types of statements using sample

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1. A statement is made regarding the nature of the

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The null hypothesis is a statement of “status

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1. We reject the null hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is

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1. We reject the null hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is

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1. We reject the null hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is

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1. We reject the null hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is

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For each of the following claims, explain what it would mean to

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The level of significance, , is the

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As the probability of a Type I error

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We never “accept” the null hypothesis because

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According to a study published in March, 2006 the mean

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a) Suppose the sample evidence indicates that the null

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b) Suppose the sample evidence indicates that the null

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Answer: x is normally distributed with mean 3.25

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