Development of the Eye

Dr. Nwankwo
 Embryogenesis of Eye

• The eye begins to develop as a pair of optic

vesicles on each side of the forebrain
(Prosencephalon).
• Of the 3 germ layers of the embryo, only 2 are
involved in the development of the eye
 Ectoderm
• Surface ectoderm
• Neuroectoderm
 Mesoderm
• The Surface ectoderm gives rise to - the
corneal and conjuctival epithelium, the lens,
the lacrimal and tarsal glands.

• The neuroectoderm – the retina, the fibers of

the optic nerve, and the smooth muscle of iris.

• The mesoderm – the corneal stroma, sclera,

choroid, iris, ciliary body, part of the vitreous
body and the cells lining the anterior chamber.
• The primitive eye starts in the 3rd week of
gestation (day 22) when anterior portion of
the neural tube is closing
• It originates as Optic pit thickening on either
side of midline in the ventrolateral region of
the primitive forebrain.
• The optic pit enlarges to form 2 globular
structures on either side termed Primary optic
vesicles
• These optic vesicles connect to the forebrain
via an Optic stalk
• Primary optic vesicle meets surface ectoderm
• During the 4th week of gestation, optical
vesicle invaginates distally and inferiorly
resulting in the formation of a 2-layered Optic
cup.

• Optic cup is widely open distally and inferiorly.

• The optic stalk also invaginates, so the inferior

groove forms the Optic fissure/ embryonic
fissure
• The embryonic fissure closes by the 6th week
• Closure begins at the centre and extends
anteriorly and posteriorly until only a small
crescent remains open at the posterior pole.
• Through this fissure, there is:
 Outgrowth of axons from ganglion cells which
form the optic nerve
 Ingrowth of vascular elements which aids in
growth and development of the eye

• Failure of fusion of this fissure by the 6th or 7th

week results in coloboma formation
 Retina
• The retina develops from the two layers of
optic cup.
 The sensory retina is formed by the inner layer
of optic cup
 Retinal pigment epithelium is formed by the
outer layer of optic cup

• The potential space between the inner and

outer layers of optic cup is the site for retinal
detachment.
Retinal Pigment layer
• It is a single layer of columnar cells

• Initially it is non-pigmented but at 5th week,

melanogenesis begins resulting in formation of
melanosomes.

• Differentiation begins at the posterior pole and

proceeds anteriorly.
Neurosensory layer
• The anterior 1/5th forms the posterior surface of
developing ciliary body and iris

• The posterior 4/5th is initially divided into:

 Inner marginal zone devoid of nuclei
 Outer primitive nuclear zone which has 9 rows
of nuclei
• Later, the outer nuclear layer invades the inner
marginal layer at the time of closure of embryonic
fissure
• Hence, Retinal Neurosensory cells divide into:
1. Outer neuroblastic layer which contains -
• Horizontal cells
• Bipolar nerve cells
• Rod cells
• Cone cells
2. Inner neuroblastic layer which contains –
• Ganglion cells
• Amacrine cells
• Muller cells
• These layers are seperated by the transient
nerve fiber layer of Chievitz which later forms
the inner plexiform layer

• The inner 9 layers of retina are formed by

merging of these 2 cell layers

• By the 8th month of fetal life, all the layers of

retina are recognisable
 Optic Nerve
• The optic stalk and optic axons together form
the optic nerve.
• The optic cup is connected to the brain by the
optic stalk
• The optic stalk has a groove, the choroid
fissure, on its ventral surface
• In this groove are the hyaloid vessels.
• During the seventh week, the choroid fissure
closes, and a narrow tunnel forms inside the
optic stalk
• The nerve fibers of the retina returning to the
brain lie among cells of the inner wall of the
stalk
• As a result of the continuously increasing
number of nerve fibers, the inner wall of the
stalk grows, and the inside and outside walls
of the stalk fuse
• The optic stalk is thus transformed into the
optic nerve.
• Its center contains a portion of the hyaloid
artery, later called the central artery of the
retina.
• On the outside, pia, arachnoid and dura mater
surround the optic nerve forming the optic
nerve sheath by 4th month
• Optic disc is the point where the axons from the
ganglionic layer of retina converge to leave the
posterior surface of optic cup along with the
optic stalk
• Optic chiasma is the point where there is partial
decussation of the axons of the 2 optic nerves.
• Myelination of optic nerve fibers is incomplete
at birth. After the eyes have been exposed to
light for approximately 10 weeks, myelination is
complete.
Lens
• Begins development at the 3rd week of gestation

• It is derived from surface ectoderm

• With the formation of optic vesicle, the surface

ectoderm in contact with the optic vesicle
thickens and forms the lens plate / lens placode
on the 27th day.

• Eventually, the lens plate invaginates and

seperates from surface ectoderm to form lens
vesicle on the 33rd day
• Lens vesicle has an anterior wall with a single
layer of cuboidal epithelium and a posterior
wall with columnar epithelium

• Cells of the posterior wall increase in length

and their nuclei disappear to form Primary
lens fibers

• Additional Secondary lens fibers are formed

by the mitotic division of the anterior
epithelial cells.
• These lens fibres are formed throughout
human life developing into different layers:
 Embryonic nucleus – is the innermost part of
the lens. Formed in the 1st to 3rd month of fetal
life
 Fetal nucleus – 3rd to 8th month of fetal life
 Infantile nucleus – last weeks of fetal life to
puberty
 Adult nucleus –formed after puberty
 Cortex – is the peripheral part of the lens,
composed of recently formed fibers
• The lens capsule is produced by the anterior
lens epithelium

• The developing lens is supplied with blood by

the distal part of the hyaloid artery
• However , it becomes avascular in the fetal
period when this part of the artery
degenerates.
• Thereafter, the lens depends on diffusion from
the aqueous humor in the anterior chamber
of the eye, which bathes its anterior surface,
and from the vitreous humor in other parts
Cornea
• The development of cornea is induced by the
lens and optic vesicle formation.
• With the seperation of the lens vesicle, the
surface ectodermal cell proliferates to form the
epithelium of cornea
• The cornea is formed from three sources:
 The external corneal epithelium, derived from
surface ectoderm
 The mesenchyme, derived from mesoderm,
which is continuous with the developing sclera
 Neural crest cells that migrate from the lip of the
optic cup and differentiate into the corneal
endothelium
Vitreous body
• Develops between the lens and optic cup

• Mostly derived from mesoderm with minimal

contribution from ectoderm

• Formation of vitreous occurs in 3 stages;

 Primary vitreous
 Secondary vitreous
 Tertiary vitreous
 Primary vitreous – formed in the 1st month of
gestation
• It is composed of fibrils from ectoderm and
mesenchymal cells from mesoderm
• Supplied by hyaloid vessels and its branches.
 Secondary vitreous – formed in the 2nd month of
gestation
• Formed between the primary vitreous and retina
• It is avascular
• The secondary vitreous humor consists of
primitive hyalocytes (vitreous cells), collagenous
material, and traces of hyaluronic acid.
• By 5th – 6th month, the primary vitreous and
hyaloid vessels undergo atrophy.
• The atrophied hyaloid vessels become hyaloid
canal which remain throughout life as Cloquet
canal
 Tertiary vitreous – formed in the 4th month of
gestation between the ciliary processes and
lens capsule
• Consists of large numbers of collagen fibres
which develop with formation of zonular
fibers
 Uvea
• It is the middle vascular layer of the eyeball
• Composed of iris, ciliary body and choroid
• Stroma of all these are derived from the
mesoderm
• Consists of blood vessels, pigmented cells
called melanocytes and connective tissue.
 Iris
• Developed from 2 layers
1. Mesoderm
• Anterior stroma

2. Neuroectoderm
• Iris pigment epithelium
• Sphincter and dilator muscles
• Pupillary membrane is formed by
condensation of mesenchyme situated in the
anterior surface of the lens
• Two layers of neuroectoderm forming the
edge of the optic cup extend to the posterior
surface of pupillary membrane.
• These structures fuse to become the Iris
• An opening in the central part of the iris
becomes the pupil.
• Pupillary membrane begins to degenerate at
about the 8th month of gestation
Ciliary body and Suspensory
ligaments of Lens.
• Mesenchyme at the edge of the optic cup
forms the:
 Connective tissue of ciliary body
 Smooth muscle fibres of ciliary muscle
 Suspensory ligaments of lens

• 2 epithelial layers formed from

neuroectoderm at the edge of optic cup form
the:
 Outer pigmented layer
 Inner non-pigmented layer
• Ciliary body is situated between the future iris
epithelium and peripheral retina

• Ciliary epithelium undergoes folding to form

70 -75 ciliary processes
 Choroid
• It is the middle vascular coat of eyeball
• Begins to form at the anterior region of the
cup and proceeds posteriorly.
• Formed from mesenchyme surrounding the
optic vesicle
 Sclera

• It is the outer tough fibrous coat of eyeball

• Originates as the condensation of
mesenchyme outside the optic cup in the 7th
week of gestation
• First forms at the limbal region and progresses
peripherally until posterior pole is reached in
the 5th month of gestation.
• Primitive mesoderm differentiates into
collagen and elastic fibres of an adult sclera
Anterior and Posterior Chambers
• The anterior chamber arises as a slit in the
mesenchyme between the surface ectoderm
and developing iris.

• The posterior chamber arises as a split in the

mesenchyme posterior to the developing iris
and anterior to the developing lens

• The anterior and posterior chambers

communicate with each other through the pupil
and are filled with fluid called the aqueous
humor produced by the ciliary process of the
ciliary body.
• The clear aqueous humor circulates from the
posterior chamber into the anterior chamber
• It provides nutrients for the avascular cornea
and lens.

• From the anterior chamber, the fluid passes

through the scleral venous sinus (canal of
Schlemm) at the iridocorneal angle where it is
resorbed into the bloodstream.

• Blockage of the flow of fluid at the canal of

Schlemm is one cause of glaucoma.
Eyelids
• Develop as folds of surface ectoderm above
and below the developing cornea.
• Folds fuse at 3rd month intrauterine life.
• A closed space, conjuctival sac, exists in front
of cornea.
• Seperation of eyelids starts by 5th month of
intrsuterine life and completes by 7th month.
• Eyelashes arise as epithelial buds from surface
ectoderm
 They first appear in upper lid and are arranged
in 2 – 3 rows
 EXTRAOCULAR MUSCLES.
• The extraocular muscles develop from
mesoderm of somitomeres 1, 2, and 3 (also
called preoptic myotomes) that surround the
optic cup.
Congenital malformations of the
Eye
 Coloboma Iridis
• Coloboma iridis is a cleft in the iris caused by
failure of the choroid fissure to close in week 7
of development and may extend into the
ciliary body, retina, choroid, or optic nerve.

• A palpebral coloboma, a notch in the eyelid,

results from a defect in the developing eyelid.
 Congenital Cataracts
• Congenital cataracts are opacities of the lens
and are usually bilateral.
• They are fairly common and may result from
the following:
 Rubella virus infection
 Toxoplasmosis
 Congenital syphilis
 Down syndrome (trisomy 21)
 Galactosemia (an inborn error of metabolism).
 Congenital Aphakia
• Congenital aphakia is the absence of lens
• It is a rare anomaly that can be subdivided
into 2 forms:
 Primary congenital aphakia
 Secondary congenital aphakia
• Primary congenital aphakia results from failed
induction of the surface ectoderm during
embryogenesis and has been associated with
severe ocular and systemic developmental
anomalies.
• In secondary congenital aphakia, the lens has
developed but has been resorbed or extruded
before or during birth.
• This form of aphakia is often associated with
congenital infections, such as congenital
rubella
 Congenital Glaucoma
• Congenital glaucoma (Buphthalmos) is
increased intraocular pressure due to
abnormal development of the canal of
Schlemm or the iridocorneal filtration angle.

• It is usually genetically determined but may

result from maternal rubella infection.
 Detached Retina
• Detached retina may result from head trauma or
may be congenital.
• The site of detachment is between the outer and
inner layers of the optic cup (i.e., between the
retinal pigment epithelial layer and outer
segment layer of rods and cones of the neural
retina).
• The photograph in the next slide shows a
detached retina.
• Note the retina (arrow) detached from the
choroid and sclera (L denotes the lens).
Persistent Iridopupillary membrane

• Persistent iridopupillary membrane consists of

strands of connective tissue that partially
cover the pupil
• However, it seldom affects vision.
• The photograph in the next slide shows a
persistent iridopupillary membrane.
• Note the strands of connective tissue that
partially cover the pupil.
 Microphthalmia
• Microphthalmia is a small eye, usually
associated with intrauterine infections from
the TORCH group of microorganisms
• Toxoplasma
• Rubella virus,
• Cytomegalovirus
• Herpes simplex virus
 ANOPHTHALMIA
• ANOPHTHALMIA is absence of the eye.
• It is due to failure of the optic vesicle to form.
 Retinoblastoma
• Retinoblastoma is a tumor of the retina that
occurs in childhood and develops from
precursor cells in the immature retina.
• The RB gene is located on chromosome 13
• Clinical features include a malignant tumor of the
retina that develops in children younger than 5 years
of age, a whitish mass in the pupillary area behind
the lens (leukokoria; the “cat's eye”), and strabismus.
 Cyclopia
• Cyclopia is a single orbit and one eye.
• It is due to failure of median cerebral
structures to develop.
 Retrolental fibroplasia
• Retrolental fibroplasia (retinopathy of
prematurity) is an oxygen-induced retinopathy
seen in premature infants.
 Aniridia
• Aniridia is the absence of the iris, usually
involving both eyes.
• It can be congenital or caused by a penetrant
injury.
• Vision may be severely compromised and the
disorder is frequently associated with a
number of ocular complications: nystagmus,
amblyopia, buphthalmos, and cataract.
Thank you!