Chapter 2: Intro To Relational Model

Chapter 2: Intro to Relational Model
Database System Concepts, 6th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use
Example of a Relation
attributes
(or columns)
tuples
(or rows)
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Attribute Types
 The set of allowed values for each attribute is called the domain
of the attribute
 Attribute values are (normally) required to be atomic; that is,
indivisible
 The special value null is a member of every domain. Indicated
that the value is “unknown”
 The null value causes complications in the definition of many
operations
Relation Schema and Instance
 A1, A2, …, An are attributes
 R = (A1, A2, …, An ) is a relation schema

Example:
instructor = (ID, name, dept_name, salary)
 Formally, given sets D1, D2, …. Dn a relation r is a subset of
D1 x D2 x … x Dn
Thus, a relation is a set of n-tuples (a1, a2, …, an) where each ai  Di
 The current values (relation instance) of a relation are specified by

a table
 An element t of r is a tuple, represented by a row in a table
Relations are Unordered
 Order of tuples is irrelevant (tuples may be stored in an arbitrary order)

 Example: instructor relation with unordered tuples
Keys
 Let K  R
 K is a superkey of R if values for K are sufficient to identify a unique
tuple of each possible relation r(R)
 Example: {ID} and {ID,name} are both superkeys of instructor.
 Superkey K is a candidate key if K is minimal
Example: {ID} is a candidate key for Instructor
 One of the candidate keys is selected to be the primary key.
 which one?
 Foreign key constraint: Value in one relation must appear in another
 Referencing relation
 Referenced relation
 Example – dept_name in instructor is a foreign key from instructor
referencing department
Schema Diagram for University Database
Relational Query Languages
 Procedural vs .non-procedural, or declarative
 “Pure” languages:
 Relational algebra
 Tuple relational calculus
 Domain relational calculus
 The above 3 pure languages are equivalent in computing power
 We will concentrate in this chapter on relational algebra
 Not turning-machine equivalent
 consists of 6 basic operations
To call back
Query on set of relations produces

relation as a result
Examples:
 Simple college admissions database
College(cName,state,enrollment)
Student(sID,sName,GPA,sizeHS)
Apply(sID,cName,major,decision)
Apply
College
cName state enroll sID cName Maj Dec
Student
sID sName GP HS
A
Cont.
 Simple Query: Relation name
sID sName GP HS
Student - A
Apply
College
cName state enroll sID cName Maj Dec
Student
sID sName GP HS
A
Use operators to filter, silce, combine
 Select operator: picks certain rows
sID sName GPA HS
Student 1818 Ahmed 3 4
29 Ali 3.8 40
1. Student with GPA > 3.7

sID sName GPA HS
 GPA > 3.7 (Student) 29 Ali 3.8 40
2. Student with GPA>3.7 and HS<1000

GPA<3.7 ^ HS<1000 (Student) sID sName GPA HS
1818 Ahmed 3 4
3. Applications to stanford CS major
Select Operation – selection of rows (tuples)
 Relation r
A=B ^ D > 5 (r)
Use operators to filter, silce, combine
 Project operator: picks certain columns
sID cName Maj Dec
Apply
1818 stanford CS Accepted
29 Marej Bio Accepted
1. Student id and college
sID cName
 sID,cName (Apply)
1818 stanford
29 Marej
2. ID and name of student with GPA>3.7

 sID,sName (GPA<3.7 (Student)) sID sName
1818 Ahmed
3. sID with Applications to stanford CS major
Project Operation – selection of columns (Attributes)
 Relation r:
 A,C (r)
Cross-product: combine two relations
 Cartesian product
Student Apply
sID sName GPA HS sID cName Maj Dec
1818 Ahmed 3 4 1818 stanford CS Accepted
29 Ali 3.8 40 29 Marej Bio Accepted
- Student X Apply
1. Names and GPAs of students with HS >1000 who applied CS and
were rejected.
?
2. name of student who study at CS
 s.sName (s.sID=a.sID ^ maj=‘CS’ (Student X Apply))
Cross-product .cont
# Note: student as s and Apply as a
s.sID s.sName s.GPA s.HS a.sID a.cName a.Maj a.Dec

1818 Ahmed 3 4 1818 stanford CS Accepted
29 Ali 3.8 40 29 Marej Bio Accepted
1818 Ahmed 3 4 29 Marej Bio Accepted
29 Ali 3.8 40 1818 stanford CS Accepted
joining two relations -- Cartesian-product
 Relations r, s:
 r x s:
Natural Join
Enforce equality on all attributes with same name.

Eliminate one copy of duplicate attributes.
Student Apply
sID sName GPA HS cName Maj Dec

1818 Ahmed 3 4 stanford CS Accepted
29 Ali 3.8 40 Marej Bio Accepted
EX: Names and GPAs of students with HS>500 who applied to CS and were accepted.
 sName,GPA (  HS>500 ^ maj=‘CS’ ^ dec=‘Accepted’( Student Apply ))
Q: Names and GPAs of students with HS>500 who applied to CS at college with enr >2000
and were accepted
Natural Join Example
 Relations r, s:
 Natural Join
 R s
 A, r.B, C, r.D, E ( r.B = s.B ˄ r.D = s.D (r x s)))
Cartesian-product – naming issue
 Relations r, s: B
 r x s: r.B s.B
Renaming a Table
 Allows us to refer to a relation, (say E) by more than one name.
 x (E)
returns the expression E under the name X
 Relations r
 r x  s (r) r.A r.B s.A s.B

α 1 α 1
α 1 β 2
β 2 α 1
β 2 β 2
Union of two relations
 Relations r, s:
 r  s:
Set difference of two relations
 Relations r, s:
 r – s:
Set intersection of two relations
 Relation r, s:
 rs
Note: r  s = r – (r – s)
Composition of Operations
 Can build expressions using multiple operations
 Example: A=C (r x s)
 rxs
 A=C (r x s)
Joining two relations – Natural Join
 Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively.
Then, the “natural join” of relations R and S is a relation on
schema R  S obtained as follows:
 Consider each pair of tuples tr from r and ts from s.
 If tr and ts have the same value on each of the attributes in
R  S, add a tuple t to the result, where
 t has the same value as tr on r
 t has the same value as ts on s
Natural join. note
Notes about Relational Languages
 Each Query input is a table (or set of tables)
 Each query output is a table.
 All data in the output table appears in one of the input tables
 Relational Algebra is not Turning complete
 Can we compute:
 SUM
 AVG
 MAX
 MIN
Summary of Relational Algebra Operators
Symbol (Name) Example of Use
σ
σ
(Selection) salary > = 85000 (instructor)
Return rows of the input relation that satisfy the predicate.
Π
Π
(Projection) ID, salary (instructor)
Output specified attributes from all rows of the input relation. Remove
duplicate tuples from the output.
x
(Cartesian Product) instructor x department
Output pairs of rows from the two input relations that have the same value on
all attributes that have the same name.
∪
Π ∪ Π
(Union) name (instructor) name (student)
Output the union of tuples from the two input relations.
-
Π -- Π
(Set Difference) name (instructor) name (student)
Output the set difference of tuples from the two input relations.
⋈
(Natural Join) instructor ⋈ department
Output pairs of rows from the two input relations that have the same value on
all attributes that have the same name.
End of Chapter 2
Database System Concepts, 6th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use

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Chapter 2: Intro to Relational Model

Database System Concepts, 6th Ed.

 R = (A1, A2, …, An ) is a relation schema

 The current values (relation instance) of a relation are specified by

 Order of tuples is irrelevant (tuples may be stored in an arbitrary order)

Query on set of relations produces

cName state enroll sID cName Maj Dec

cName state enroll sID cName Maj Dec

1. Student with GPA > 3.7

2. Student with GPA>3.7 and HS<1000

3. Applications to stanford CS major

A=B ^ D > 5 (r)

2. ID and name of student with GPA>3.7

3. sID with Applications to stanford CS major

s.sID s.sName s.GPA s.HS a.sID a.cName a.Maj a.Dec

Enforce equality on all attributes with same name.

sID sName GPA HS cName Maj Dec

 sName,GPA (  HS>500 ^ maj=‘CS’ ^ dec=‘Accepted’( Student Apply ))

 A, r.B, C, r.D, E ( r.B = s.B ˄ r.D = s.D (r x s)))

returns the expression E under the name X

 r x  s (r) r.A r.B s.A s.B

Database System Concepts, 6th Ed.

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