What is Decision-Making?

The ability to make effective decisions is

vital to the successful performance of a
school administrator. Herbert Simon has
called it is the “heart of executive activity”
Duncan writes that the one thing “generic”
to the job of an administrator is decision
making.
- A process influenced by information and
values, whereby a perceived problem
is explicitly defined, alternative solutions
are posed and weighted, and a choice
made that subsequently is implemented
and evaluated.
MAJOR STEPS IN THE DECISION MAKING

The need for a decision:

1. Define the situation

2. Identify the alternatives
3. Assess the alternatives
4. Select the best possible alternative
5. Secure acceptance of the decision
6. Implement the decision
7. Evaluate the decision
 MAJOR STEPS IN DECISION MAKING

STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3

THE NEED FOR A DEFINE A IDENTIFY THE ASSESS THE

DECISION SOLUTION ALTERNATIVES ALTERNATIVES

STEP 4 STEP 4 STEP 4 STEP 5

SELECT THE BEST SECURE IMPLEMENT EVALUATE
POSSIBLE ACCEPTANCE OF THE DECISION THE DECISION
ALTERNATIVE THE DECISION
 The Nature of Decision Making
1. Rational or Normative perspective views
decision making as a process that begins with a
problem or need that the administrator the logically
addresses be engaging in a series of sequential steps,
culminating in an effective solution or decision.

2. Preparatory, Shared or Site-based decision

making – It reflects the democratic and
administrative norms dating to the work of Mary
Parker Follett and constitute a reaction to the
impersonality and rigidity of scientific management.
3. The Strategic decision-making
approach – views decision choices in an
environment where multiple interest
groups, groups, conflict, negotiation,
limited resources, position authority, and
informal power exist.
 Types of Decisions

Programmed Decisions

Programmed decisions are repetitive, low risk, and

routine. There is a standard operating procedure that
determines course of action.

Non-Programmed Decisions
are poorly structured, and are high-risk. There
is no standard operating procedure to identify proper
cause of action and decision-maker must engage in
difficult problem-solving.
The Decision-Making Process

Clearly define the problem.

Set the criteria needed to judge possible solutions

and determine what goals the decision must
achieve.
Determine the purpose of the decision.

Establish priorities by determining which

goals are the most important.
Generate solutions by discovering the courses
of action that can achieve these goals.

Test the solutions by determining how well

they accomplish the desired goals.

Make the decision.

 Strategies for Decision-Making

Form focus groups

- Popular strategy for gaining input from a large
number of individuals that greatly aids in the decision-
making process.

Planning - anticipate major decisions

have well-targeted and knowledgeable participants in
Recruiting -
Moderating - ensure that participants are well prepared and have good
questions.
Analyzing and Reporting - analyze and report information gathered and
use it in the decision making process.
 Brainstorm

- Brainstorming is one of the most widely used

strategies that generates a large number of ideas in a short
time period.

The purpose of brainstorming is to foster creative

thinking and generate solutions by prohibiting criticism.
Guidelines for Successful Brainstorming

Ensure that the problem is clearly and neutrally stated.

Formulate ground rules

No judgment is made about solutions as they are created. The

goal is to generate the largest quantity, not quality, of ideas

Select a facilitator to enforce ground rules

Use activities and humor to overcome communicative and

creative barriers.
 Analyze Cost vs. Benefits

- viewing every solution to a problem as a trade-off

between costs (typically the organization’s resources that
must be used) and benefits (typically claims with the goal of
increasing the organization’s resources).

* Good solutions: low cost/high benefit

* Poor solutions: high cost/low benefit
* The decision is made using the solution with the
lowest cost/ highest benefit ratio.
Criteria for Determining Who Should be Involved

Identifying Stakeholders
- Who is most affected by the decision?
Team Commitment to Decision
- How necessary is the team’s commitment to
the implementation of the decision?

Knowledge of Issue
- Who is the most knowledgeable of the issue and
can offer the best advice?
Time Constraints
- How quickly must the decision be made?
Three Basic Methods of Decision-Making

1. Authoritative
- Authoritative Decision: made by an individual alone or on
the behalf of a group.

- Most appropriate when:

time to make decision is minimal.
decision is simple and routine.
low team commitment is necessary to implement
decision.
there is a clear consensus on who is the most
knowledgeable on the issue.
2. Consultative

- Consultative Decision: made by an individual but after

he or she consults with the members of a group or team.

- Most appropriate when:

time to make decision is limited but allows for
group consultation.
there is a clear consensus on authority.

team participation is necessary but lengthy

interactions are not desired.
moderate to low team commitment is needed to
implement decision.
 3. Group

- Group Decisions: made by all members of a group

or team, ideally through consensus.

- Most appropriate when:

time allows for lengthy group discussions and a
consensus to be met.

team has skills and knowledge to reach a

consensus.

high team commitment is required to implement

decision.
 Barriers to Effective Decision-Making

Lack of knowledge on the issue

Fear of making the wrong decision

Individual does not feel empowered

Lack of understanding of the problem

Clear goals are not established

Hostile environment to suggestions and input

Limited Resources.
 Tips for Successful Decision-Making

Ensure that the issue is clearly

identified and understood.
Engage your intuition.

Gather information. The more knowledgeable you are

on the issue the more comfortable you will feel
making a decision about it.

Have clearly defined goals and

determine the steps needed to accomplish them.

Tips for Successful Decision-Making

Enlist the opinions of others.

Foster a creative environment open to new ideas

and suggestions.

Understand that mistakes are a possibility

and you must learn from them when they occur.
 Decision-Making Styles

1. Intuitive style

- Some people are spontaneous in nature and like to

describe “on the spot”. Experience and circumstances may
support this type of problem solving approach. However,
those who consistently use this style are – admittedly –
comfortable with the “trial and error”, or:”hit and miss”
approach.
 2. Limited Procrastination Style

- Not to be confused with never wanting to make a

decision, this style involves the delaying of a decision
until enough factors have been evaluated and/or enough
time has gone by for the situation to stabilize.

3. Systematic Style
- Involves identifying and evaluating each possible
course of action. Of all decision making styles, this is
obviously the most likely candidate for computer based
decision making tools.
3. Individualistic Style

- Some individuals prefer to research and arrive at

a decision on their own, without any active input from
others.

4. By Consensus Style

- Applies to decisions that have to, or should

preferably, be arrived at as a group. All, except the
more “spontaneous “decision making styles, can
advantageously make use of time tested decision
making techniques and tools .
 Two Main Circumstances

1. PROBLEM SOLVING –
- know something of the main aspects of the
problem to be solved.

- know something of the main avenues of

solution.
- are willing to input truthfully, honestly, and
as possible your own evaluation of each
element of the problem, and of the possible
avenues of solution.
2. CREATIVITY PROCESS –

- open mindedness
- willingness to explore nay possibility, even
if seemingly “far fetched” or ridiculous.

- It is often necessary to let unbridled creativity

get you out of a rut or a seemingly inescapable
situation. Few decision making tools and
techniques can be adapted to the creative process,
regardless of decision making styles.
 Decision-Making Techniques

1. DECISION TREES

- one identifies options, branching out

of an initial bipolar choice to make, by
projecting likely outcomes. The
limitation of this technique lies mainly
in that it forces you to address the
problem from only two possible
avenues of solution right from the start.
2. THE PARETO ANALYSIS

- is a technique to let you get the most

“bang for the buck”! It is based on the Pareto
Principle whereby you must identify which actions
will let you get 80% of the possible positive results
by ding only 20% of the work. It is known as the
80/20 rule.
 3. PROS & CONS

- one lists the advantages and disadvantages

of each possible decision and attempts to identify
the best possible outcome whereby the advantages
outnumber the disadvantages.

4. PMI
- is a variation of the Pros & Cons technique
adding a third possibility called “interesting”
(plus/minus/interesting).
 5. SIX THINKING HATS

- This technique can help reduce some of the

shortcomings of any of decision making styles. Edward De
Bono wrote a book, titled “Six Thinking Hats”, about this
very powerful technique back in 1985. It is still available in
paperback. The technique lets you take a cold hard look at
a problem from six different “angles”, or distinctly
different pints of view.

Ex. When you are a small Web entrepreneur,

running a home based business all by yourself, you can
use the “Six Thinking Hats” to effectively stimulate a
group of knowledgeable specialists, all collaborating
and contributing to solve your problem! Like I said: very
 Tame Complexity

- All the most commonly used techniques in use today

have advantage and disadvantages. Some of the more simple
(simplistic) ones even have severe limitations, regardless of
decision making styles.

- When faced with a tough decision to make, in complex

situations, you have to use a combination of al least two or three
techniques to obtain useful and meaningful results. This can lead to
additional complexity that can hinder more than help problem
solving.
 Different Decision Making Scenarios

Political Decision Making

- The correct decision can make the difference
between life and death because of involvement in wars,
public health, and other vital decisions.

Individual and Family Decision Making

- Choosing a mate, career, healthy living, and other
important individual and family decisions depend on your
decision making knowledge and experience. They can have a
profound effect on your life and your family’s lives.
 Management Decision Making and Business
Decision Making

- Good decision making is required for successful

managing. Today decision making is being pushed further and
further down the ranks. So a manager must supervise those
under him or her in the science of decision making.

Group Decision Making

- Many important decisions depend on good group
decision making. If all are trained in SM-14, you get unity of
method and a greater chance of success.
 Medical Decision Making and Clinical
Decision Making
- Here again life and health are at stake. The training of
doctors and medical researchers would be improved if teaching
the scientific method was started while were still in elementary
and high school.

Military Decision Making

- Our military must continue to be the best in the world for
our national safety. Members of the military at all levels are
constantly involved in complex national security decisions.
 - Standardizing on training in the SM-14 model formula for
military personnel would help keep us the best in the world. The
military decision making process has its special techniques like all
specialties, but the basic process should still be the scientific
method as expressed in SM-14

Good Quote on the Importance of Decision Making

- One of my common decision making quotes was by Nobel

Laureate Herb Simon who had written the description of the
importance of decision making on the page in the Decision Making
Booklet titled “Problem Solving and Decision Making”.
 Scientific Method – 14 (SM -14)

- The scientific method originated centuries ago, but it is

taught only to a limited degree in science classes. It is proposed
that the scientific method is not just a method for scientists, but
also offers a general approach to problem definition and solving
and serves as a guide to problem prevention and solution-
challenging.
 observing
determining if there is a problem;

setting goals and planning;

searching, exploring, and gathering evidence;

generating creative and logical alternative

solutions;
evaluating the evidence;

forming the hypothesis;

 challenging the hypothesis;

reaching a conclusion;
suspending judgment;
taking action;
using motivation and sensitivity as
supporting ingredients;
applying thinking skills, methods, and
processes. Each step is explained in some
detail with anecdotes and illustrations on the
facing page. Preparing a self-development
program is discussed.
 REFERENCES:

Bannister, Steve.”The Secrets of Effective Decision-Making.

“ November 2006.
CanadaOne. October 6, 2008.
http//www. canadaone.com/ezine/nov06/effective_decision_making.html

Denhardt, Robert B., Janet Vinzant Denhardt, and Maria P.

Aristigueta. Managing
Human Behavior in Public & Nonprofit Organizations.
Thousand Oaks, CA; Sage
Publications, Inc., 2002