Digital Signal Processing

Lecture 1 – Introduction
ENGR. Muhammad Talha Jahangir,
MS(Computer Engineering) NUST, Pakistan
mtjahangir17@ce.ceme.edu.pk

Exam Type Marks

Assignment
Project Submission Quiz
Mid Term
Final
Project
Project Presentation
Class Performance
About Me
 Work Experience
 MNS UET MULTAN, Pakistan
(Lecturer in CS Department)
 BZU Multan
(Visiting Lecturer)
 IRAS, Multan Pakistan
(Visiting Lecturer)
 MNSUA University of Agriculture, Multan Pakistan
(Visiting Lecturer)
 KAIMS International Institute, Multan Pakistan
(Visiting Lecturer)
 University Of Central Punjab, Multan Pakistan
(Visiting Lecturer)
 GWC Networks LLC Dubai
(Network Engineer)
 Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited (PTCL) Data Centre & Pakistan Internet Exchange (Pie), Lahore Pakistan
(Intern)
 JTECH Solutions & Computer Academy, Mumtazabad Multan, Pakistan
(Software Engineer)
 Certifications
 Cisco Certified Network Associate CCNA (Routing & Switching)
 Cisco Certified Network Professional CCNP (Routing & Switching)
 Microsoft Certified Systems Associate (MCSA)
 Microsoft Certified Professional (MCP)
 Microsoft Certified Solutions Expert (MCSE)
 Palo Alto Firewall Accredited Configuration Engineer (ACE (PAN-OS 7.0))
 BLOCKCHAIN Certification
 Cisco Certified Network Associate (Cisco IOS Network Security) & (VOIP)
Professional Education
 MS Computer Engineering, EME NUST RAWALPINDI,PAKISTAN
 BS Computer Engineering, BZU MULTAN,PAKISTAN
JTech Solution’s & Computer Academy Links
1. Website
https://jtechsolutionspk.com/

2. Facebook Page

https://m.facebook.com/JtechSolutionsAcademy/

3. Instagram Page

https://www.instagram.com/jtechsolution93/

4. Youtube Channel

https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCvq1NY2HnxzptJ3PSU75zsA?
app=desktop
Course Outline
 Signal & System
 Continuous Time Signal
 Discrete Time Signal
 Analog Time Signal
 Digital Signal
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Signals
 Digital Signal Processing
 Application of dsp
 Basics of Continuous Time Signal
 Unit Impulse or Delta Function
 Unit Step Signal
 Ramp Signal
 Parabolic Signal
 Signum Function
 Sinc Function
 Sinusoidal Signal
Course Outline
 Rectangular Function
 Triangular Pulse Signal
 Basics of Discrete Time Signal
 Even and Odd Signals
 Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals
 Energy and Power Signals
 Conjugate Signals
 Conjugate Anti-Symmetric Signals
 Half Wave Symmetric Signals
 Orthogonal Signal
 Operations on Signals
 Time Shifting
Course Outline
 Amplitude Shifting
 Time Scaling
 Amplitude Scaling
 Time Reversal
 Amplitude Reversal
 Differentiation
 2d signals
 Static System
 Dynamic System
 Casual System
 Non-casual system
 Anti-Casual system
 Linear System
 Non-linear System
 Time-Invariant System
 Time-Variant System
 Stable System
 Unstable System
Course Outline
 Use computer programming tools (MATLAB) to process and visualize
signals
 LTI system
 Properties of LTI Systems
 Convolution
 Different Methods of Convolution
 Properties of Convolution
 Fourier Series
 Fourier Transform
 Discrete Time Fourier Transform
 Discrete Time Fourier Transform
 DTFT properties
 Fast Fourier Transform
 Laplace Transform
 ROC and Its Properties
 Properties of Laplace Transform and their Applications
Course Outline
 Z-Transform
 ROC and Its Properties
 Inverse Z-transform
 Sampling & its types
 Quantization
 Signal Flow Graph
 Filter Design
 Construct low-pass, band-pass, and high-pass filters to solve signal
processing problems
 IIR and FIR filters
Expected Outcome
A student who successfully completes the course will have the ability to:
Understand the fundamental theories of digital signal processing.
Knows basic discrete-time signal and system types, convolution sum, impulse and frequency
response concepts for linear, time-invariant (LTI) systems, difference equation realization of LTI
systems and discrete-time Fourier transform and basic properties of these.
Understands periodic sampling of analog signals and the relation between Fourier transforms of
the sampled analog signal and the resulting discrete-time signal.
Grasps z and inverse z transform, region of convergence concepts and their properties, performs
simple transform calculations, understands the system function concept with its relations to
impulse and frequency responses.
Understands signal flow graph and block diagram representations of difference equations that
realize digital filters
Learns direct forms 1 and 2 for IIR filter realization.
Learns direct form for FIR filter realization.
Understands definitions and basic properties of forward and inverse discrete Fourier transform
and their computation by fast algorithms.
Construct low-pass, band-pass, and high-pass filters to solve signal processing problems
Learns basic digital filter design methods:
(i) Learns analog Butterworth and Chebyshev filters transformed to yield digital IIR filters,
(ii) impulse-invariance and bilinear transformation methods for IIR filter design and
(iii) FIR filter design methods based on windowing.
Relevant Books
1. Discrete Time Signal Processing by Alan V. Oppenheim
2. Theory & Problems of DSP by MONSON H. HAYES
3. Digital Signal Processing by John G. Proakis
4. The Scientist & Engineer’s Guide to DSP by Steven W.
Smith
5. MATLAB An Introduction with Application by Amos
Gilat

 Programming Tool: MATLAB

Important Websites
1. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/signals_and_systems/index.htm
2. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/digital_signal_processing/index
.htm
3. http://ccw.cuiwah.edu.pk/Home/ViewContent?
CourseId=11183&LectureId=
4. http://ccw.cuiwah.edu.pk/Home/ViewContent?
CourseId=5150&LectureId=
5. http://ccw.cuiwah.edu.pk/Home/ViewContent?
CourseId=4172&LectureId=
6. https://www.isip.piconepress.com/courses/temple/ece_4522/
7. https://www.ee.columbia.edu/~dpwe/e4810/outline.html
8. https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/technical-articles/basic-
signal-operations-in-dsp-time-shifting-time-scaling-and-time-
reversal/
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Dependent & Independent Variable
1.2 Signal & System
1.3 Digital
1.4 Digital Twin
1.6 Pros of Digital Signal
1.7 What is Signal Processing
1.8 Analog Signal
1.9 Analog Signal Processing
1.10 Digital Signal Processing
1.11 Cons of Digital Signal Processing
1.12 Purpose of DSP
1.13 DSP is everywhere
1.14 Basics of Conversion (Analog to Digital)
1.15 Upsampling & Downsampling
1.16 What is Image?
1.17 What is Digital Image ?
1.18 Different Dimension of Signal
1.19 Electromagnetic spectrum
1.20 Basics of Sinusoidal wave Signal Classification & Types

1.20 Time Domain & Frequency Domain

Dependent & Independent Variable

Signal

A signal is a function of independent variables such as time,

distance, position, temperature, pressure, etc.
 e.g. sound: air pressure variation at a point as a function of
time f(t)
 Dimensionality:
Sound: 1-D
t
Example: the electric signal out of a
microphone.
 Greyscale x(t )
image i(x,y) : 2-D
t

 Video: 3 x 3-D: {r(x,y,t) g(x,y,t) b(x,y,t)} 14

Signal & System
 Signal: Anything that carries information can be called as signal. It can also be
defined as a physical quantity that varies with time, temperature, pressure or
with any independent variables such as speech signal or video signal.
 Since anything that conveys information or broadcast a message in physical world
between two observers is a signal. That includes speech or (human voice) or an
image as a signal. Since when we speak , our voice is converted to a sound
wave/signal and transformed with respect to the time to person we are speaking
to.
 Not only this , but the way a digital camera works, as while acquiring an image
from a digital camera involves transfer of a signal from one part of the system to
the other.
 System: Anything which process the signal is called System.

 Signal Processing: The process of operation in which the characteristics of a

signal (Amplitude, shape, phase, frequency, etc.) undergoes a change is known as
signal processing.
Signal Classification
According to their representation and processing, signals can
be classified into various categories details of which are
discussed below.
1.Continuous Time Signals
2.Analogue Time Signals
3.Discrete Time Signals
4.Digital Signals
Explanation..
 A signal that is specified for every value of t is called continuous time
signals.
 A signal whose Amplitude can have an value in a continuous range is
called analog time signals.
 A signal that is defined only at discrete point T=nt is called discrete
time signals. Here “n” is integer and “T” is sampling period.
 In digital we can represent anything in the finite form.
 A signal whose Amplitude can have finite number of values is called
digital signals.

Discret time signal

Continue..
 Analog and digital signals are used to transmit information, such as audio or video, via
electric signals.
 The main difference between the two is that in analog technology, information is translated
into electric pulses of varying amplitude, and in digital technology, translation of information
is into binary format (zero or one), where each bit is representative of two amplitudes either 0
or 1.
 It must be noted that continuous signal represent via x(t), while discrete signal represent x[n].
Discrete-Time Signal
Digital
Digital
Digital Twin
 A digital twin is a digital representation of a physical object or
system.
 The twin is constructed so that it can receive input from sensors
gathering data from a real-world counterpart.
 This allows the twin to simulate the physical object in real time
 The twin could also be designed based on a prototype of its physical
counterpart.
Digital Twin
Advantages of Digital Signal
 The effect of distortion, noise, and interference is much less in digital signals as
they are less affected.
 Digital circuits are easy to design and cheaper than analog circuits.
 Digital Circuit can be easily programmed.
 Provide Security.
 Digital storage is cheap
 Data Compression, Error detection and Error Correction is available.
 Signal processing functions such as encryption and compression are employed in
digital circuits to maintain the secrecy of the information.
 Combining digital signals using Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is easier than
combining analog signals using Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).
 The capacity of the channel is effectively utilized by digital signals.
 Digital signal can be stored and processed easily because it contains only two values
“0” and “1”.
What is Signal processing
 Signal processing deals with the representation, transformation, and manipulation of
signals and the information they contain.
 In signal processing, we modify a signal to extract/enhance/ rearrange the information
 Origin in analog electronics e.g. radar
 Examples…
 Noise reduction
 Data compression
 Representation for recognition/classification…

Useful Signal Signal Processor Output

Analog or Digital
Explanation
 Signals may have to be transformed in order to
 Amplify or filter out embedded information
 Detect patterns
 Prepare the signal to survive a transmission channel
 Undo distortions contributed by a transmission channel
 Compensate for sensor deficiencies
 Find information encoded in a different domain.
 To do so, we also need:
 Methods to measure, characterize, model, and simulate
signals.
 Mathematical tools that split common channels and
transformations into easily manipulated building blocks.
Analog Signal
Digital Processing of Continuous Time Signals

Signals can be processed numerically by a digital computer or using

a DSP chip. We need:
1. Analog to Digital Converter (ADC): convert the signal to a
numerical sequence
2. Digital to Analog Converter (DAC): convert it back to analog, if
we need to.

ADC DSP

DAC
30
Cons of Digital Signal Processing
 Cons
 Sampling causes loss of information
 A/D and D/A requires mixed-signal hardware
 Limited speed of processors
 Quantization and round-off errors
 Discrete time processing artifacts (aliasing, delay)
 Dan require significantly more power (battery, cooling)
 Digital clock and switching (Synchronization)
Purpose of Digital Signal Processing
Signal Enhancement
Image Enhancement
Signal Restoration
Example
Signal Reconstruction
Signal Synthesis
Signal Estimation

- Weather Forecasting
Digital Signal Processing
 DSP is everywhere.
DSP is Everywhere
 Sound applications
 Compression, enhancement, special effects, synthesis, recognition, echo
cancellation,…
 Cell Phones, MP3 Players, Movies, Dictation, Text-to-speech,…
 Communication
 Modulation, coding, detection, equalization, echo cancellation,…
 Cell Phones, dial-up modem, DSL modem, Satellite Receiver,…
 Automotive
 ABS, GPS, Active Noise Cancellation, Cruise Control, Parking,…
 Medical
 Magnetic Resonance, Tomography, Electrocardiogram,…
 Military
 Radar, Sonar, Space photographs, remote sensing,…
 Image and Video Applications
 DVD, JPEG, Movie special effects, video conferencing,…
 Mechanical
 Motor control, process control, oil and mineral prospecting,…
Health monitoring

Systolic and diastolic blood pressure

Beat-to-beat heart rate

Need for processing to
draw any conclusions
42
More Signal Example
More Signal Example
 Biological signals
 Biological signals are time series signals generated by some biological mechanism
 Represented as small amplitudes of voltages (or other units) as a function of time EEG signal
1.5
 Some examples are shown on the table 1

0.5

Generated/ Name

Amplitude (microV)
0

caused by -0.5

Heart Electrocardiogram (ECG) -1

-1.5

-2
Brain Electroencephalogram (EEG) -2.5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Sampling points

Muscle Electromyogram (EMG)

Blood pressure Arterial Blood Pressure ECG

changes (ABP)
Blood oxygen Oxygen Saturation (SpO2)
level
ABP
45
HCI
EXAMPLE
Extension
Multidimensional signal processing
image processing
Spectral Analysis
Signal modeling
Adaptive signal processing
Specialized filter design
Specialized algorithm for evaluation of Fourier transform
Specialized filter structure
Multirate signal processing
Wavelet transform
Conversion of analog to digital signals
 Since there are lot of concepts related to this analog
to digital conversion and vice-versa. We will only
discuss those which are related to digital image
processing.
 There are two main concepts that are involved in the
conversion.
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
Sampling
 Sampling as its name suggests can be defined as take
samples.
 Take samples of a digital signal over x axis.
 Sampling is done on an independent variable. In case of this
mathematical equation:
 t=nT
Here n is integer 0,1,2,…
Let T=5sec
Then sample value will be
0,5,10,15,…..
t=nT

 The sampling frequency or sampling rate, fs, is the number of samples obtained in

one second (samples per second), thus fs = 1/T.
 It is measured in Hz or kHz (one kHz being 1000 Hz).
 For example, 44100 samples per second can be expressed as either 44100 Hz, or
44.1 kHz.
Upsampling & Downsampling
 Sampling is done on the x variable. We can also say that the
conversion of x axis (infinite values) to digital is done under
sampling.
 Sampling is further divide into up sampling and down sampling.
 Rescaling or resampling is the technique used to create a new
version of an image with a different size. Increasing the size of
the image is called upsampling, and reducing the size of an
image is called downsampling.
 The process of converting the sampling rate of a digital signal
from one rate to another is Sampling Rate Conversion.
 Increasing the rate of already sampled signal
is Upsampling whereas decreasing the rate is
called downsampling.
 If the range of values on x-axis are less then we will increase the
sample of values. This is known as up sampling and its vice
versa is known as down sampling.
Upsampling & Downsampling
Quantization
 Quantization as its name suggest can be defined as dividing into
quanta (partitions). Quantization is done on dependent variable.
It is opposite to sampling.
 In case of this mathematical equation y = sin(x)
 Quantization is done on the Y variable. It is done on the y axis.
The conversion of y axis infinite values to 1, 0, -1 (or any other
level) is known as Quantization.
 The quantization of a signal has been shown in the figure below.
Image
 An image is defined as a two-dimensional function,F(x,y), where x
and y are spatial coordinates, and the amplitude of F at any pair of
coordinates (x,y) is called the intensity of that image at that point.
 When x,y, and amplitude values of F are finite, we call it a digital
image.
 In other words, an image can be defined by a two-dimensional array
specifically arranged in rows and columns.
 Digital Image is composed of a finite number of elements, each of
which elements have a particular value at a particular location. These
elements are referred to as picture elements, image elements, and
pixels.
 A Pixel is most widely used to denote the elements of a Digital
Image.
 However, unlike hu­mans., who are limited to the visual band of the
electromagnetic (EM) spectrum, imaging machines cover almost the
entire EM spectrum, ranging from gamma to radio waves.
Explanation
What is a Digital
Image?
A digital image is a representation of a two-
dimensional image as a finite set of digital values,
called picture elements or pixels
What is a Digital Image?
(cont…)
Pixel values typically represent gray levels,
colours, heights, opacities etc
Remember digitization implies that a digital image
is an approximation of a real scene

1 pixel
Different dimensions of signals
 1 dimension signal: The common example of a 1
dimension signal is a waveform. It can be mathematically
represented as:
F(x) = waveform
 Where x is an independent variable. Its mean waveform
altered only because of x.
 Since it is a one dimension signal , so that’s why there is
only one variable x is used.
 Pictorial representation of a one dimensional signal is given
below:
Major Confusion
 Now this lead to another question, which is, even though it is a one
dimensional signal ,then why does it have two axis?.
 The answer to this question is that even though it is a one dimensional
signal, but we are drawing it in a two dimensional space.
 Or we can say that the space in which we are representing this signal
is two dimensional. That’s why it looks like a two dimensional signal.
 Perhaps you can understand the concept of one dimension more better
by looking at the figure below.

 In graph we get single value based on only x-axis one dimension.

Different dimensions of signals
 2 dimension signal: The common example of a two dimensional signal is
an image.
 it has two dimensions. It can be mathematically represented as:
F (x , y) = Image
 Where x and y are two variables.
 The concept of two dimension can also be explained in terms of
mathematics as:

 Now in the above figure, label the four corners of the square as A,B,C and D
respectively. If we call, one line segment in the figure AB and the other CD,
then we can see that these two parallel segments join up and make a square.
Each line segment corresponds to one dimension, so these two line segments
correspond to 2 dimensions.
 Plane shapes that have only two dimension such as width and height.
 In graph it give single value with the reference of x dimention & y-dimension
(2 dimension)
Different dimensions of signals
 2 dimension signal:
Different dimensions of signals
 If u see video through laptop then it is 2d image.
 For example, here is the pic where teacher write something into
whiteboard. Here we see simple 2d pic we cannot see third parameter
(space) which is present between person and white board.
Different dimensions of signals
 3 dimension signal: Three dimensional signal as it names
refers to those signals which has three dimensions. The
most common example has been discussed in the beginning
which is of our world. We live in a three dimensional world.
 Another example of a three dimensional signal is a cube or a
volumetric data or the most common example would be
animated or 3d cartoon character.
 The mathematical representation of three dimensional signal
is:
F(x,y,z) = animated character.
 In 3d u feel like in real environment.
 Solid object have three measurements such as length, width
and space.
Different dimensions of signals
 Another axis or dimension Z is involved in a three
dimension, that gives the illusion of depth. In a Cartesian
co-ordinate system it can be viewed as:
Sine Wave
General Sine Wave

 General sine wave

 s(t ) = A sin(2ft + )
 Figure shows the effect of varying each of the
three parameters
 (a) A = 1, f = 1 Hz,  = 0; thus T = 1s
 (b) Reduced peak amplitude; A=0.5
 (c) Increased frequency; f = 2, thus T = ½
 (d) Phase shift;  = /4 radians (45 degrees)
 note: 2 radians = 360° = 1 period

66
Control of Signals
 Signal can be controlled by three attributes:

 Amplitude
 Frequency
 Phase
Control of Signals- Amplitude
Control of Signals- Frequency
Diagram
Control of Signals- Phase
Sine Wave Parameters

73
Period & Frequency
Diagram
Units of Frequency
Examples
Examples
More about Frequency
 Frequency is the relationship of a signal to time and that the frequency of a wave is
the number of cycles it completes in 1 s.
 Change in a short span of time means high frequency. Change over a long span of
time means low frequency.
 But another way to look at frequency is as a measurement of the rate of change.
 Electromagnetic signals are oscillating wave­forms; that is, they fluctuate
continuously and predictably above and below a mean energy level.
 A 40-Hz signal has one-half the frequency of an 80-Hz signal; it completes 1 cycle
in twice the time of the 80-Hz signal, so each cycle also takes twice as long to
change from its lowest to its highest voltage levels.
 Frequency, therefore, though described in cycles per sec­ond (hertz), is a general
measurement of the rate of change of a signal with respect to time.
 If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero.
 If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.
 But what if a signal changes instantaneously? What if it jumps from one level to
another in no time? Then its frequency is infinite.
 In other words, when a signal changes instantaneously, its period is zero; since
frequency is the inverse of period, in this case, the frequency is 1/0, or infinite
(unbounded).
Harmonic
 A harmonic is a signal or wave whose frequency is an integral
(whole-number) multiple of the frequency of some reference
signal or wave. 
 For a signal whose
fundamental
frequency is f , the
second harmonic has
a frequency 2 f , the
third harmonic has a
frequency of 3 f , and
so on.
 The lowest frequency
produced by any particular
instrument is known as
the fundamental
frequency.
The fundamental
frequency is also called the
first harmonic .
Phase
 Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0.
Wavelength
 The distance between two consecutive crest and trough is called wavelength.
 Wavelength is another characteristic of a signal traveling through a transmission
medium.
 Wavelength binds the period or the frequency of a simple sine wave to the
propagation speed of the medium
 While the frequency of a signal is independent of the medium, the wavelength.
depends on both the frequency and the medium.
 Wavelength is a property of any type of signal.
Explanation
Bandwidth
 The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between
the highest and the lowest frequencies contained in that signal.
 For example, if a composite signal contains frequencies
between 1000 and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000 - 1000, or 4000.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth
Bandwidth Relationship
Bandwidth Relationship
Relationship between Data Rate and Bandwidth
 The greater the bandwidth, the higher the information-
carrying capacity (Suppose that, 2Mhz bandwidth
contains the data two time greater then 1Mhz frequency )
 Conclusions
 Any digital waveform will have infinite bandwidth
 BUT the transmission system (which cannot entire
bandwidth) will limit the bandwidth that can be
transmitted
 AND, for any given medium which support the
greater bandwidth then the cost will also be greater
 HOWEVER, limiting the bandwidth creates
distortions

89
Signals for Conveying Information
 Electromagnetic signals used as a means
to transmit information.
– An electromagnetic signal is a function of time
– But it can also be expressed as a function of
frequency i-e the signal consists of
components of different frequencies
 Frequencydomain view of a signal is far
more important to an understanding of
data transmission than a time domain
view.
Time Domain & Frequency Domain
 A sine wave is comprehensively defined by its amplitude,
frequency, and phase.
 A complete sine wave in the time domain can be represented by
one single spike in the frequency domain.
 Time domain: how the signals change over time
 Freq - domain: how much signals lie in the frequency range,
theoretically signals are composed of many sinusoidal signals
with different frequencies (Fourier series), like triangle signal, its
actually composed of infinite sinusoidal signal (fundamental and
odd harmonics frequencies)
 The analysis of a system with respect to time is known as time
domain analysis and with respect to frequency is frequency
domain analysis.
 We usually change our systems from time to frequency by using
(fourier, laplace ) to make it easy to understand the response of
the system because time domain is more complex for higher
orders.
Diagram
Time-Domain Concepts
 In time domain, the signal can be either analog or digital.
 In analog signal, the signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion
over time.
 For example in speech, voice changes its amplitude/intensity over
time with continuous change.
 Digital signals are binary 0s, 1s or text
 Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a constant level for some
period of time and then changes to another constant level
 Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that repeats over
time
 s(t +T ) = s(t ) - ∞< t < + ∞
• where T is the period of the signal
 Aperiodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that doesn't
repeat over time
Frequency-Domain Concepts
 Fundamental frequency - when all frequency components
of a signal are integer multiples(1,2,….,n) of one
frequency(f), it’s referred to as the fundamental frequency
 Spectrum - range of frequencies that a signal contains (i.e.
if 1Mhz to 4Mhz is occupied for wireless communication
then it will be your spectrum)
 Absolute bandwidth - width of the spectrum of a signal (if
spectrum lower bandwidth is 1Mhz and higher bandwidth
is 3Mhz then absolute bandwidth will be 3-1=2Mhz)
 Any electromagnetic signal can be shown to consist of a
collection of periodic analog signals (sine waves) at
different amplitudes, frequencies, and phases
Time domain & Frequency Domain
 In the time domain, a plot of amplitude vs time.
 In the frequency domain, a plot of amplitude vs frequency.
 A time domain graph shows how a signal changes over
time.
 The frequency domain graph shows how much of the signal
lies within each given frequency band over a range of
frequencies.
Explanation

 As we see that in time domain, it is difficult to distinguish the

frequencies. So for this, we will need the frequency domain.
Pros of Frequency Domain
1. Complexity is lesser than time domain
2. In the frequency domain, stability is decided.
3. Filtering concept is useful to filter the
appropriate part i.e. suppose if I want to
eliminate specific frequency then it will be
very easy to filter it.
4. Convolution of two signals is simply in
multiplication form.
About Channel Capacity
 Impairments, such as noise, limit data rate that can be
achieved
 For digital data, to what extent do impairments limit data
rate?
 Channel Capacity – the maximum rate at which data can
be transmitted over a given communication path, or
channel, under given conditions
 Condition such as we measure the noise in the
environment and then measure the signal strength to
analyze the channel capacity.
Concepts Related to Channel Capacity
 Data rate - rate at which data can be
communicated (bps)
 Noise - average level of noise over the
communications path (if signal intensity will
change then its mean your noise level will be
increasing)
 Error rate - rate at which errors occur such as
when you transmit 1 but at receiving site receive
0 and vice verse.
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
Nyquist Bandwidth
 Nyquist theorem which tells “the maximum data rate send through
the noiseless channel”.
 For binary signals (two voltage levels (1,0))
 C = 2B
 With multilevel signaling (or multi level signal)
 C = 2B log2 M
• M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels or
levels
 Give an example for M = 8 and B 3100 C = 18600bps
 So the data rate can be increased by increasing the number of
different signal elements. This places an extra burden on receiver(if
the level is increased then interference will also be increase so for
receiver it will be very difficult for him to detect the actual signal).
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate (Example)
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate (Example)
Gain
 If the signal gets larger before it exits the device, it is gain
 RF amplifiers produce gain
 Gain is an active process in most cases, in other words it
requires a power source
 Gain can also be the combination of signals from different
directions appearing together, such as the main signal and
a reflected signal
 However, the total gain cannot exceed the original level
transmitted from the antenna in such a case
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
 In wireless communication, we measure the channel quality or
signal quality by using signal to noise ratio.
 Ratio of the power in a signal to the power contained in the noise
that’s present at a particular point in the transmission
 Typically measured at a receiver because at signal it know how
much signal is changed by adding the noise.
 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, or S/N)
signal power
( SNR) dB  10 log10
noise power
 A high SNR means a high-quality signal(lower error rate), lower
number of required intermediate repeaters
 SNR sets upper bound on achievable data rate
 SNR expresses the amount in decibels that the intended signal
exceeds the noise level.
Shannon Capacity Formula

 Equation:

C  B log 2 1  SNR 

 Represents theoretical maximum that can be

achieved
 In practice, only much lower rates achieved
 Formula assumes white noise (thermal noise)
 Impulse noise is not accounted for
 Attenuation distortion or delay distortion not
accounted for
106
Example

 Nyquist formula indicates that all other things being equal, doubling
the bandwidth doubles the data rate
 Shannon investigate relationship of data rate with bandwidth and
noise.
 From the Eq., data rate can be increased either by increasing
bandwidth or signal strength.
 LowerF = 3Mhz, UpperF = 4 MHz SNR = 24 then
 B = 4 – 3 = 1 MHz
 SNRdb = 10log10 (24) = 251
 C = 10^6 x log2(1 + 251)
 Approx. 10^6 x 8 bps = 8 Mbps
 For this data rate, the number of signal levels by Nyquist formula are
M = 16

107
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity (Example)
Signal Classifications
The independent variable in the mathematical representation of a signal
may be either continuous or discrete.
Continuous-time signals are defined along a continuum of time and are
thus represented by a continuous independent variable.
Continuous-time signals are often referred to as analog signals.
Discrete-time signals are defined at discrete times, and thus, the
independent variable has discrete values; that is, discrete-time signals are
represented as sequences of numbers.
Signals such as speech or images may have either a continuous- or a
discrete-variable representation, and if certain conditions hold, these
representations are entirely equivalent.
Besides the independent variables being either continuous or discrete, the
signal amplitude may be either continuous or discrete.
Digital signals are those for which both time and amplitude are discrete.
Diagrams

 Classification of one-dimensional signals based on domain and

amplitude
Brief Signal Classifications
Signal is a representation of physical quantity or phenomenon

Deterministic Signals Random Signals

Representation

Time Domain Representation Frequency Domain Representation

t is the independent variable f is the independent variable

Continuous Continuous

Discrete Discrete

111
Transient Signals
 Transient signals may be defined as signals that exist
for a finite range of time as shown in the figure.
Typical examples are hammer excitation of systems
explosion and shock loading etc.
Stationary versus Nonstationary Signals
 Stationary signals are those whose average properties do not change with
time. Stationary signals have constant parameters to change with time.
 Signals whose frequency content do not change in time are called
stationary signals.
 Nonstationary signals have time dependent parameters. In
an engine excited vibration where the engines speed varies with time; the
fundamental period changes with time as well as with the corresponding
dynamic loads that cause vibration.
Finite and infinite length
1. Finite-length signal: nonzero over a finite interval tmin< t< tmax

2. Infinite-length signal: nonzero over all real numbers

Deterministic versus Random Signals

1) Deterministic Signal: Any signal

whose past, present and future values
are precisely known without any
uncertainty.

2) Random Signal: A signal in which

cannot be approximated by a formula
to a reasonable degree of accuracy
(i.e. noise).
 The ‘shhhh’ sound is a good
example that is rather easy to
observe using a microphone and
oscilloscope.
Explanation
 Signals can be divided into two main categories - deterministic and random.
 The term random signal is used primarily to denote signals, which have a random in
its nature source.
 As an example we can mention the thermal noise, which is created by the random
movement of electrons in an electric conductor.
 Apart from this, the term random signal is used also for signals falling into other
categories, such as periodic signals, which have one or several parameters that
have appropriate random behavior.
 An example is a periodic sinusoidal signal with a random phase or amplitude.
 Signals can be treated either as deterministic or random, depending on the
application.
 Speech, for example, can be considered as a deterministic signal, if one specific
speech waveform is considered.
 It can also be viewed as a random process if one considers the ensemble of all
possible speech waveforms in order to design a system that will optimally process
speech signals, in general.
 It must be noted that, stochastic signal is used to describe a non deterministic
signal, i.e. a signal with some kind of uncertainty and randomness.
 So, we can say that random signal will be stochastic signal. If we process the
random signal then we need stochastic process.
Periodic & Aperiodic Signals
Diagrams
Example
 A function is T-Periodic if for any x, f(x+T)=f(x)
 The fundamental period would be the lowest value of T for which f is T-Periodic
 There are some functions that repeat there values frequently as you move along x-
axis. For Example:
 The graph of y = Sin(x) is,

 Now you may notice that after every interval of 2π the value of sinx is
repeated. This means that after every period of 2π radians or 36
 For such functions the fundamental period is the period after which they repeat
themselves.

 Period for Cos(x) is also 2π.

Example
Solution 1
Solution 2

Note: A continuous-time signal consisting of the sum of two time-

varying functions is periodic, if and only if both functions are
periodic and the ratio of these two periods is a rational number.
Solution 3

Given signal is x(t) = cost + sin √2t

Where w1=1
W2=√2

Fundamental period of

x1(t)= T1 = 2π

x2(t)= T2 = √2π

The ratio,
T1/T2 = 2π/√2π= √2

which cannot be expressed as ratio of integers, i.e., non-

periodic.
Even & Odd Signal
 One of characteristics of signal is symmetry that may be useful for signal
analysis.
 Even signals are symmetric around vertical axis.
 Odd signals are symmetric about origin.
 A signal is referred to as an even if it is identical to its time-reversed
counterparts; x(t) = x(-t). i.e Cos(t) is an even signal.
 A signal is odd if x(t) = -x(-t). i.e Sin(t) is an odd signal. While Sin(t2) is even
signal.
 An odd signal must be 0 at t=0, in other words, odd signal passes the origin.
 Any signal may be decomposed into a sum of its even part, xe(t), and its
odd part, xo(t), as follows:
Example
Y

Here a, b is the even signal,

while c & d is odd signal.
Example-1

 Amplitude add here

Example-1
Example-2
Example-3
Q: Suppose that, if we have the signal:

2-Sint/t 2+t3sint+t2sint+t2cost+t3/cos2t

Divide the even and odd part?

Sol:

As we know that, any signal can be divided into two parts in

which one part will be even and other part will be odd.

x(t)=xe(t)+xo(t)

=(2+t3Sint+t2Cost)+(-(Sint/ t2) +t3/cos2t) = (xe(t)+xo(t))

Imp Note
Example
Causal, Anticausal and Non-causal
Signal
Example
Real and Imaginary Signals
 A signal is said to be real when it satisfies the condition x(t) =
x*(t)
 A signal is said to be odd when it satisfies the condition x(t) =
-x*(t)
 Note: * mean conjugate
 Example:
 If x(t)= 3 then x*(t)=3*=3
here x(t) is a real signal.
 If x(t)= 3j then x*(t)=3j* = -3j = -x(t)
hence x(t) is a odd signal.

 Note: For a real signal, imaginary part should be zero.

Similarly for an imaginary signal, real part should be zero.
Real and Imaginary Signals
Energy and Power Signals
Multi-channel & Multidimensional Signals
 Multi-channel Signals
 Signals are generated by multiple source or multiple sensor. This
signals, can represented in vector form.
 Example: ECG (Electrocardiogram)are often used 3-channel
and 12-channel.
 Multidimensional Signals:
 If the signal is a function of a single independent variable, the signal
called a one-dimensional signal.
 On the other hand , a signal called M-dimensional if its value is a
function of M independent variables.
 The gray picture is an example of a 2-dimensional signal, the
brightness or the intensity I(x,y) at each point is a function of 2
independent variables.
 The black & white TV picture [I(x,y,t)]:is a “3-Dimensional” since the
brightness is a function of time.
136
 The color TV picture: is a multi-channel/multidimensional signal.