Electronic Instrumentation

Experiment 8: Diodes
* Introduction to Diodes
* Part A: Diode i-v Characteristic Curves
* Part B: Diode Circuits: Rectifiers and Limiters
* Part C: LEDs, Photodiodes and Phototransistors
* Part D: Zener Diodes
 Introduction to Diodes
D1
ANODE CATHODE
DIODE

 A diode can be considered to be an

electrical one-way valve.
 They are made from a large variety of
materials including silicon, germanium,
gallium arsenide, silicon carbide …
Introduction to Diodes

 In effect, diodes act like a flapper valve

• Note: this is the simplest possible model of a
diode
Introduction to Diodes
 For the flapper valve, a small positive pressure
is required to open.
 Likewise, for a diode, a small positive voltage
is required to turn it on. This voltage is like the
voltage required to power some electrical
device. It is used up turning the device on so
the voltages at the two ends of the diode will
differ.
• The voltage required to turn on a diode is typically
around 0.6 - 0.8 volt for a standard silicon diode
and a few volts for a light emitting diode (LED)
Introduction to Diodes
10V

5V

0V

-5V

-10V
0s 0.5ms 1.0ms 1.5ms 2.0ms 2.5ms 3.0ms
V(D1:1)
Time

 10 volt sinusoidal voltage source

D1

D1N4002
VAMPL = 10V V1
R1
FREQ = 1k 1k

0
 Connect to a resistive load through a diode
 Introduction to Diodes
D1

VAMPL = 10V V1
V
D1N4002
V
R1
Only positive
FREQ = 1k
1k
current flows
0
10V

5V

0V

-5V

-10V
0s 0.5ms 1.0ms 1.5ms 2.0ms 2.5ms 3.0ms
V(D1:1) V(D1:2)
Time
How Diodes Work

At the junction, free electrons from the

N-type material fill holes from the P-
type material. This creates an insulating
layer in the middle of the diode called
the depletion zone.
How Diodes Work
How Diodes Work

When the positive end of the battery is hooked up to the N-type

layer and the negative end is hooked up to the P-type layer, free
electrons collect on one end of the diode and holes collect on
the other. The depletion zone gets bigger and no current flows.
Part A: Diode i-v Characteristic Curves

• What is a i-v characteristic curve?

• i-v curve of an ideal diode
• i-v curve of a real diode
What is an i-v characteristic curve?
 Recall that the i-v relationship for a resistor
is given by Ohm’s Law: i=v/R
 If we plot the voltage across the resistor vs.
the current through the resistor, we obtain
i
The slope of the
straight line is
given by 1/R
v
What is an i-v characteristic curve?
If we change the axis variables in PSpice, we
can obtain i-v characteristic curves.
R1

500

V1
15V R2
1k

10mA

5mA V-I Characteristic of a 500 Ohm Resistor

0A

-5mA

-10mA
-6.0V -4.0V -2.0V 0V 2.0V 4.0V 6.0V
I(R1)
V(R1:1) - V(R1:2)
i-v characteristic for an ideal diode
iD

Ideal Diode

vD
When voltage 0
When voltage
across the diode is across the diode is
negative, the diode positive, the diode
looks like an open looks like a short.
circuit.
 i-v characteristic of a real diode
 Real diode is close to ideal

Ideal Diode
Real diode characteristics
 A very large current can flow when the diode is
forward biased. For power diodes, currents of a
few amps can flow with bias voltages of 0.6 to
1.5V. Note that the textbook generally uses 0.6V
as the standard value, but 0.7V is more typical for
the devices we will use in class.
 Reverse breakdown voltages can be as low as 50V
and as large as 1000V.
 Reverse saturation currents Is are typically 1nA or
less.
The diode equation
 The iD-vD relationship (without breakdown) can be written
simply as:

 v D nVT 
iD  I S  e  1
 
 vD is the voltage across the diode and iD is the current
through the diode. n and Is are constants. VT is a voltage
proportional to the temperature, we use 0.0259V.
 Note that for vD less than zero, the exponential term
vanishes and the current iD is roughly equal to minus the
saturation current.
 For vD greater than zero, the current increases
exponentially.
 R 1

Diode equation
V2 1k
5V
D 1
D 1N 4148

19m
0

16m

12m

8m
 v D nVT  iD
iD  I S  e  1
4m  
0

-16V -14V -12V -10V -8V -6V -4V -2V 0V 2V

I(D2) (7e-9)*(exp( V(D2:1)/(.05107))-1)
V(D2:1)

Both the simulated current vs. voltage (green) and

the characteristic equation (red) for the diode are
plotted.
 Diode equation comparison
 In this experiment, you are asked to find the
parameters for the equation
 v D nVT 
iD  I S  e  1
 
 That is, you need to find the constants in this
equation so that it matches the data from an actual
diode. Note that VT=25.9mV at room temperature,
you need to find n and Is
Comparison
 A good guess for the exact values of IS
and n can be determined for a real diode
by building the circuit and matching
data from it to the diode equation in V4

Excel. V f u n c t io n _ g e n e r a t o r
U 1 9 V b a tte ry 0
AD C 2+
R 2
AD C 2-

AD C 1+

7
1k
3 5
 Plot two series + O S2

V+
V5
VO FF = 0 6 D 2
V A M P L = .6 R 4 O U T
D 1N 4148
FR EQ = 1k

• series 1 :
vD  ( ADC1)  ( ADC11 k)
2
-
u Ai7 4 1 

4
O S 1 2     ADC 2  
ADC V3
1 AD C 1-

D V- 0
0 R2
9 V b a tte ry 0
R 5

• series 2:
10k

calculate iD for 0<vD<1

Our Circuit
 The IOBoard function generator can’t supply a large
enough voltage for this experiment.
 You will build a gain of 10 op-amp circuit and use it
throughout the experiment.
 Keep it together on your protoboard.
 Disconnect the batteries when not in use.

V4
AD C 2+ AD C 2-
R 2
V f u n c t io n _ g e n e r a t o r
9 V b a tte ry 0 AD C 1+
U 1
7

1k
3 5
+ O S2
V+

V5
VO FF = 0 6 D 2
V A M P L = .6 R 4 O U T
D 1N 4148
FR EQ = 1k 2 1 AD C 1-
- O S1
4

1k V3
uA741
0
V-

0
R2 is current sensing resistor
9 V b a tte ry 0 D2 is diode to be measured
R 5

10k

Gain of 10 Op-Amp
Part B: Diode Circuits
• Rectifiers

• Voltage Limiters (Clippers)

Rectifiers
 As noted above, the main purpose of diodes is to
limit the flow of current to one direction.
 Since current will flow in only one direction, even
for a sinusoidal voltage source, all voltages across
resistors will have the same sign.
 Thus, a voltage which alternately takes positive
and negative values is converted into a voltage
that is either just positive or just negative.
A Half Wave Rectifier

Since the diode only allows current in

one direction, only the positive half of
the voltage is preserved.
A Half Wave Rectifier
 Note that the resulting voltage is only positive
and a little smaller than the original voltage, since
a small voltage (around 0.7V) is required to turn
on the diode.
10V
0.7V

5V

0V

-5V

-10V
0s 0.5ms 1.0ms 1.5ms 2.0ms 2.5ms 3.0ms
V(D1:1) V(D1:2)
Time
Smoothing Capacitors
 Filtering can be performed by adding a
capacitor across the load resistor
D1

D1N4148
V2
R1 C1
1k 47uF

 Do you recognize this RC combination as a

low pass filter?
 You will see how this looks both with
PSpice and experimentally
A Full Wave Rectifier
The rectifier we have just seen is called a half-
wave rectifier since it only uses half of the
sinusoidal voltage. A full wave rectifier uses both
the negative and positive voltages.
A Full Wave Rectifier
R3

50
V
D1N4148

D5 D6

V2 R4
VOFF = 0
VAMPL = 10
10k
FREQ = 1k
V- V+

D7 D8
D1N4148

 Note the path of current when source is positive.

 What diodes does the current pass through when
the source voltage is negative? In what direction
does the current travel through the load resistor?
 1.4V (2 diodes)
A Full Wave Rectifier
10V

5V

0V

-5V

-10V
110.0ms 110.5ms 111.0ms 111.5ms 112.0ms 112.5ms 113.0ms
V(D5:2) V(R4:2,D7:1)
Time

Note: Since a small voltage drop (around 0.7V)

now occurs over two diodes in each direction, the
voltage drop from a full wave rectifier is 1.4V.
Full Wave Rectifier With Smoothing
R1

50
D1N4148

D1 D3

V1 R2
VOFF = 0
VAMPL = 10
10k
FREQ = 1k
C1

D4 D2
0.1uF
D1N4148

Capacitor holds charge

10V

5V

0V

-5V

-10V
110.0ms 110.5ms 111.0ms 111.5ms 112.0ms 112.5ms 113.0ms
V(R1:2) V(R2:2,D1:1) V(R4:2,D7:1)
Time
Rectifiers and DC voltage
 If a time-varying voltage is only positive
or only negative all of the time, then it
will have a DC offset, even if the original
voltage had no offset.
 Thus, by rectifying a sinusoidal signal and
then filtering out the remaining time-
varying signal with a smoothing capacitor,
we obtain a DC voltage from an AC
source.
Voltage Limitation
 In many applications, we need to protect
our circuits so that large voltages are not
applied to their inputs
 We can keep voltages below 0.7V by
placing two diodes across the load
R1
A B
1k

V1
D1 D2
D1N4148 D1N4148

0
Voltage Limitation
 When the source voltage is smaller than 0.7V,
the voltage across the diodes will be equal to the
source.
 When the source voltage is larger than 0.7V, the
voltage across the diodes will be 0.7V.
 The sinusoidal source will be badly distorted into
almost a square wave, but the voltage will not be
allowed to exceed 0.7V.
 You will observe this both with PSpice and
experimentally.
Voltage Limitation
A
R1
B
1k

V1
D1 D2
D1N4148 D1N4148

 Case 1: The magnitude of the diode voltage

is less than 0.7V (turn on voltage)
R1

1k Diodes act
100mVdc V1
like open
circuits
0
Voltage Limitation
A
R1
B
1k

V1
D1 D2
D1N4148 D1N4148

 Case 2: The magnitude of the diode voltage

is greater than 0.7V (turn on D1)
Diodes act
like voltage
sources
Voltage Limitation R1

1k
10Vdc V1 V2

0.7Vdc

0
 Case 2: The current drawn by the diode is
given by the resistor current
V 1 0  0 .7
I    9 .3 m A
R 1000
 Voltage Limitation R1

1k
V V
V3
VOFF = 0 D1 D2
VAMPL = 10
FREQ = 1k D1N4148 D1N4148

10V 0

5V

(1.2420m,718.277m)

0V

-5V

-10V
0s 0.5ms 1.0ms 1.5ms 2.0ms 2.5ms 3.0ms
V(R1:1) V(R1:2)
Time
Input Protection Circuits
 More than one diode can be connected in
series to increase the range of permitted
voltages
Part C: Diodes and Light
• Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
• Photodiodes and Phototransistors
Light Emitting Diodes
• The Light-Emitting Diode
(LED) is a semiconductor
pn junction diode that
emits visible light or near-
infrared radiation when
forward biased.
• Visible LEDs emit
relatively narrow bands of
green, yellow, orange, or
red light. Infrared LEDs
emit in one of several
bands just beyond red
light.
Facts about LEDs
• LEDs switch off and on rapidly, are very
rugged and efficient, have a very long
lifetime, and are easy to use.
• They are current-dependent sources, and
their light output intensity is directly
proportional to the forward current through
the LED.
• Always operate an LED within its ratings to
prevent irreversible damage.
• Use a series resistor (Rs) to limit the current
through the LED to a safe value. VLED is the
LED voltage drop. It ranges from about
1.3V to about 3.6V.
• ILED is the specified forward current. V  VLED
R s  in
(Generally 20mA). I LED
Approximate LED threshold voltages
Diode VLED Diode VLED

infra-red 1.2 blue 3.6

red 2.2 purple 3.6

yellow 2.2 ultra-violet 3.7

green 3.5 white 3.6

Photodiodes and Phototransistors
• Photodiodes are designed to detect photons and
can be used in circuits to sense light.
• Phototransistors are photodiodes with some
internal amplification. Photodiode Light-detector
Circuit
Note:
Reverse current flows through the
+
photodiode when it is sensing light.
If photons excite carriers in a reverse- V I
biased pn junction, a very small
current proportional to the light
R
intensity flows.
The sensitivity depends on the
wavelength of light.
Phototransistor Light Sensitivity

The current
through a
phototransistor
is directly
proportional to
the intensity of
the incident
light.
Part D: Zener Diodes

• Zener diodes
• i-v curve for a Zener diode
• Zener diode voltage regulation
Zener Diodes
 Up to this point, we have not taken full
advantage of the reverse biased part of the
diode characteristic.
Ideal Zener Diode I

-VZ

V
Zener Diodes
 For the 1N4148 diode, the breakdown voltage is
very large. If we can build a different type of
diode with this voltage in a useful range (a few
volts to a few hundred volts), we can use such
devices to regulate voltages. This type of diode is
called a Zener diode because of how the device is
made.
 Zener diodes are rated according to where they
break down. A diode with a Zener voltage (VZ) of
5V, will have a breakdown voltage of -5V.
i-v characteristic of Zener diodes

Knee
Current

 For a real Zener diode, a finite current (called the

knee current) is required to get into the region of
voltage regulation
 Just like regular diodes, Zener diodes have a small
reverse saturation current in the reverse bias region
and a forward bias threshold voltage of about 0.7V
 R1
A B
1k

Zener Diodes Circuits 1V

V1 D1
D1N750

0
 Although Zener diodes break down at negative
voltages, Zener voltages are given as positive and
Zener diodes are typically placed in circuits
pointing away from ground.
 The voltage in this circuit at point B will
• hold at VZ when the Zener diode is in the breakdown
region.
• hold at -0.7 when the Zener diode is forward biased
• be equal to the source voltage when the Zener diode is
off (in the reverse bias region).
  Note the voltage
Zener Diodes R1
limitation for both
V
1k
V
positive and
VOFF = 0
VAMPL = 10
V1 D1
D1N750 negative source
voltages
FREQ = 1k

0
10V

5V

0V

-5V

-10V
0s 0.5ms 1.0ms 1.5ms 2.0ms 2.5ms 3.0ms
V(R1:1) V(D1:2)
Time
Wall Warts
 Transformer Rectifier
R1
TX1

5
V1 V
D1 D3 V
VOFF = 0 C2 R2
VAMPL = 120 D1N4148 D1N4148
FREQ = 60 D4 D2 33uF 1k

D1N4148 D1N4148

0 0

 Adding a full wave rectifier to the

transformer makes a low voltage DC power
supply, like the wall warts used on most of
the electronics we buy these days.
(In reality, VAC is 120Vrms => 170Vpeak)
 Transformer Rectifier
120V

80V
Filtered
40V

-0V

-40V
Unfiltered

-80V

-120V
10.000s 10.005s 10.010s 10.015s 10.020s 10.025s 10.030s 10.035s 10.040s 10.045s 10.050s
V(R1:2) V(R3:2) V(D2:2) V(R4:1)
Time
Zener Diode Voltage Regulation
R5 8.0V

50
V
D1N4148

D9 D10
D1N4148
V3
VOFF = 0
VAMPL = 10 4.0V
FREQ = 1k

D12
D1N4148 D1N4148

0 0V

C4

1mF
R7
10
Note stable
voltage
-4.0V
D14

D1N750

R8
-8.0V
110.0ms 110.5ms 111.0ms 111.5ms
V- V+
10k V(D10:1) V(R8:1,R8:2)
Time