Unit 3

Local Area Network

 Two Categories of N/Ws
• Point to Point Connections: All stations share a single communication channel
• Broadcast N/Ws: Pairs of hosts (or routers) are directly connected

Broadcast Network Point-to-Point Network

 In Broadcast n/w, key Issue is

HOW TO DETERMINE WHO GETS TO USE THE

CHANNEL, WHEN THERE IS COMPETETION
FOR IT…
 Example
Consider a Conference Call, in which 6 people on 6
different telephones are all connected together so that
each one can hear &
talk to all others. Its like when one of them stops
speaking, 2 or more will start talking at once…Leading to
chaos…..
Solution: Some sort of communication channel should be
followed to avoid network congestion
 Problem comes:
• When only a single channel is available. determining who
should go next is much harder. Many protocols r
designed to solve this Issue.

• Broadcast channels are sometimes called multi-access

channels or random access channels.
 The Channel Allocation Problem

How to allocate a single broadcast channel

among competing
users?
Two ways are there:-
• Static channel allocation in LANs & MANs.
(FDM and TDM)
• Dynamic channel allocation in LANs & MANs.
 Static Channel Allocation
• Traditional way of allocating a single channel like telephone trunk
among multiple users is Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).

If there are N users, the bandwidth is divided in to N equal sized portions,

each user being assigned one portion. Since each user has a private
frequency band, there is no interference b/t users.
When there is a small & fixed number of users, each of which has a heavy
(buffered) load of traffic.
FDM is a simple & efficient mechanism.
 Problem with FDM
• When some users are quiescent (inactive)
their bandwidth is simply lost. They are not
using it & no one else is allowed to use it
either.

• As a result most of the channels will be idle

most of the time.
 Problem with Time Division multiplexing
(TDM)
• In TDM, each user is statically allocated every Nth time
slot. If a user does not use the allocated slot, it just lies
fallow (empty).
• Since none of the traditional static channel allocation
methods works well with bursty traffic,
• Lets explore dynamic methods…
 Dynamic Channel Allocation
• Five assumptions are there in terms of solving channel allocation
problem:
1. Station Model.
2. Single Channel Assumption.
3. Collision Assumption.
4. Two parts are there
(a) Continuous time
(b) Slotted Time
5. Two distinctions made
(a) Carrier Sense.
(b) No Carrier Sense.
 1: Station Model
• The model consists of N independent stations
(computers, telephones etc) each with a user/program
that generates frames for transmission.
• Once a frame has been generated, the station is blocked
& does nothing until the frame has been successfully
transmitted.
 2. Single Channel Assumption

• A single channel is available for all

communication.
• All stations can transmit on it, & all can receive
from it.
• In case of Hardware: all stations are
equivalent, Protocol software may assign
priorities to them.
 3. Collision Assumption
• If two frames are transmitted simultaneously, they
overlap in time & the resulting signal is garbled
(corrupted), this event
is called Collision.
• All stations can detect collisions.
• A collided frame must be transmitted again later.
• There are no errors other than those generated by
Collisions.
 Assumption: 4
4a. Continuous time:
Frame transmission can begin at any instant. There is no master clock
dividing time into discrete intervals.

4b. Slotted time:

Time is divided into discrete intervals (slots). Frame transmission always
begin at the start of a slot. A slot may contain 0,1 or more frames,
corresponding to an idle slot, a successful transmission, or a collision
respectively.
 Assumption: 5
5a. Carrier Sense:
Stations can tell if the channel is in use before trying to use it. If the
channel is sensed as busy, no station will attempt to use it until it goes
idle.

5b. No Carrier Sense

Stations cannot sense the channel before trying to use it. They just go
ahead & transmit. Only later can they determine whether or not the
transmission was successful.
 Data Link Layer: Two sub layers
• Data link layer divided into two functionality-oriented sub layers
• IEEE made this division for LANs
• The MAC protocol are implemented in the MAC sub layer which is the
lower sub layer of the data link layer
• The higher portion of the data link layer is often called Logical Link
Control (LLC)
to Network Layer

Logical Link
Control
Medium Access

Layer
Data Link
Control

to Physical Layer
Medium Access Protocols
 Random Access
• Each station has the right to the medium without being controlled by
any other station
• Collision, a access conflict, if more than one station tries to send
 ALOHA
(Abramson's Logic of Hiring Access )
• The basic idea is applicable to any system in which uncoordinated users
are competing for the use of single shared channel.
• Two versions: Pure & Slotted.
• Differences
• They differ w.r.t. whether or not time is divided up into discrete slots into
which frames must fit.
• Pure ALOHA does not require global time synchronization; slotted ALOHA
does.
 ALOHA cont…
• The basic idea is simple: let users transmit whenever they have data to be
sent.
• There will be collisions, of course, and colliding frames will be destroyed.
• Due to Feedback Property of broadcasting A sender can always find out
whether or not its frames was destroyed by listening to the channel.
• If the frame was destroyed, the sender just waits for some time & sends it
again.
• Systems in which multiple users share a common channel in a way that can
lead to conflicts are widely known as contention systems.
 Pure ALOHA
• In this case, we’ve made the frames all the same length because the throughput of
ALOHA systems is maximized by having a uniform size rather than allowing variable
length frames.
• Whenever two frames try to occupy the channel at the same time, there will be a
collision & both will be garbled.
• If the first bit of a new frame overlaps with just the last bit of a frame almost finished,
both frames will be totally destroyed, & both will have to be retransmit later.
If a frame is damaged, the sender waits a random amount of time and sends it again.
 Contention systems: If multiple users in a system share a common channel in a way that
can lead to conflicts, the system is called contention system.
 What is the efficiency of Pure ALOHA?
 Frame time: the amount of time needed to transmit a fixed-length frame.
 Infinite users.
 New frames are generated according to a Poisson distribution with a mean number of N
frames per frame time.

Throughput is avg rate of successful message delivery over a communication channel, measured in
bits/sec.
In pure ALOHA, frames are transmitted at completely arbitrary
times
What is the efficiency of an ALOHA Channel??

• What fraction of all transmitted frames escape collisions under these chaotic
circumstances?
• Lets consider an infinite collection of interactive users sitting at their
computers (stations).
• A User is always in one of the two states:
(a) Typing (b) Waiting
 Initially all users are in typing state. When a line is finished, the user stops
typing, waiting for a response.
 The station then checks the channel to see if it was successful
• If YES, the user sees the reply & goes back to typing
• If NO, the user continues to wait & the frame is retransmitted over & over
until it has been successfully sent.
• Let the “frame time” denote the amount of time needed to transmit the
standard fixed-length frame( i.e. the frame length divided by the bit rate).
• Assume that the infinite population of users generate new frames
according to Poisson distribution.
• If N>1, the user community is generating frames at a higher rate than the
channel can handle, & nearly every frame will suffer a collision.
• In addition to the new frames, the stations also generate retransmission of
frames that previously suffered collisions.
A frame will not suffer a collision if no other frames are sent within
one frame time of its start

Vulnerable period for the shaded frame.

• In pure ALOHA, a station does not listen to
the channel before transmitting, it has no
way of knowing that another frame was
already underway.
The relation b/t the offered traffic & the throughput is shown in
Figure- 3.

Throughput vs. offered traffic for ALOHA systems.

• The maximum throughput occurs at G= 0.5 with
S=1/2e, which is about 0.184.
• The best we can hope for is a channel utilization of
18%.
• This result is not very encouraging, but with
everyone transmitting at will, we could hardly have
expected a 100% success rate.
Pure ALOHA Protocol: Procedure
 Pure ALOHA Protocol
• Pure ALOHA vulnerable time = 2 x Tfr

• The throughput for pure ALOHA is S = G × e −2G .

• The maximum throughput Smax = 0.184 when G= (1/2).
 Slotted ALOHA
• It’s basically a method for doubling the capacity of an ALOHA
system.
• Aim was to divide time up into discrete intervals, each interval
corresponding to one frame.
• This approach requires the users to agree of slot boundaries.
• One way to achieve synchronization would be to have one special
station emit a pip at the start of each interval, like a clock. It has
come to be known as SLOTTED ALOHA
Frames in a Slotted ALOHA network.
• In contrast to pure ALOHA, a computer is not
permitted to send whenever a carriage return is
typed.
• Instead, it is required to wait for the beginning of the
next slot.
• Thus the continuous pure ALOHA is turned into
discrete one & the vulnerable period is now halved
Vulnerable time for Slotted ALOHA Protocol
• The best we can hope for using slotted
ALOHA is 37% of the slots empty, 37%
successes & 26% collisions.

• Small increase in the channel load can

drastically reduce its performance.
 Slotted ALOHA
• Pure ALOHA vulnerable time = 2 x Tfr because there is no rule that defines
when the station can send
• Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA
 Slotted ALOHA
• throughput for slotted ALOHA is S = G × e−G .
• The maximum throughput Smax = 0.368 when G = 1
• Slotted ALOHA vulnerable time = Tfr
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocols (CSMA)

• Problem with ALOHA: low throughput because the collision wastes

transmission bandwidth.
• Solution: avoid transmission that are certain to cause collision, that is
CSMA. Any station listens to the medium, if there is some transmission
going on the medium, it will postpone its transmission.
• In Local Area Network, it is possible for stations to detect what other
stations are doing & adapt their behavior accordingly.
• Protocols in which stations listen for a carrier ( i.e. a transmission) & act
accordingly are called Carrier Sense Protocols.
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
• CSMA
– “Sense before transmit”
– “Listen before talk”
• CSMA can reduce the possibility of collision, but it can not eliminate it
Collision in CSMA
 CSMA: Vulnerable Time
• Vulnerable time for CSMA is the propagation time Tp
needed for a signal to propagate from one end of the
medium to the other
 CSMA Types:
• 1-Persistent CSMA
• Non–Persistent CSMA
• p – Persistent CSMA
Behavior of Three Persistent methods:
 CSMA: Persistence Methods
• Flow diagram for 1-persistent, Nonpersistent, p-persistent method

Data Communications,
12-44
Kwangwoon University
 Persistence Strategy
• Nonpersistent strategy
– Reduces the chance of collision
– Reduces the efficiency of the network
• 1-persistent
– Increases the chance of collision
• p-persistent
– Reduces the chance of collision and improves the
efficiency by combining the other two strategies.
 I. 1-Persistent Protocol
• When a station has data to send, it first listens to the channel to see if anyone else is
transmitting at that moment. If the channel is busy, the station waits until it becomes idle.
• When the station detects an idle channel, it transmits a frame.
• If a collision occurs, the station waits a random amount of time and starts all over again.
The protocol is called 1-persistent because the station transmits with a probability of 1
when it finds the channel idle.
• The propagation delay has an important effect on the performance of the protocol.
• There is a small chance that just after a station begins sending, another station will
become ready to send and sense the channel.
• If the first station's signal has not yet reached the second one, the latter will sense an idle
channel and will also begin sending, resulting in a collision.
• The longer the propagation delay, the more important this effect becomes, and the worse
the performance of the protocol.
• 1-Persistent Protocol is far better than pure
ALOHA because both stations have the
decency to desist from interfering with the
third station's frame. Intuitively, this
approach will lead to a higher performance
than pure ALOHA. Exactly the same holds for
slotted ALOHA.
 II. Non Persistent CSMA.
• In this protocol, a conscious attempt is made to be less greedy than
in the previous one.
• Before sending, a station senses the channel. If no one else is
sending, the station begins doing so itself.
• However, if the channel is already in use, the station does not
continually sense it for the purpose of seizing it immediately upon
detecting the end of the previous transmission.
• Instead, it waits a random period of time and then checks the
channel again and if free use it for transmission.
 Difference
• Non-Persistent algorithm leads to better
channel utilization but longer delays than 1-
persistent CSMA.
 P- Persistent CSMA
• It applies to slotted channels and works as follows :
• When a station becomes ready to send, it senses the channel.
• If it is idle, it transmits with a probability p.
• With a probability q = 1 - p, it defers until the next slot.
• If that slot is also idle, it either transmits or defers again, with probabilities p and q.
• This process is repeated until either the frame has been transmitted or another station
has begun transmitting.
• In the latter case, the unlucky station acts as if there had been a collision (i.e., it waits a
random time and starts again).
• If the station initially senses the channel busy, it waits until the next slot and applies
the above algorithm.
Figure shows the computed throughput versus offered traffic for all three
protocols, as well as for pure and slotted ALOHA.
• Persistent and non persistent CSMA protocols
are clearly an improvement over ALOHA
because they ensure that no station begins to
transmit when it senses the channel busy.
• Another improvement is for stations to abort
their transmissions as soon as they detect a
collision.
 CSMA with Collision Detection
• if two stations sense the channel to be idle and begin transmitting
simultaneously, they will both detect the collision almost immediately.
• Rather than finish transmitting their frames, which are irretrievably
garbled anyway, they should abruptly stop transmitting as soon as the
collision is detected.
• Quickly terminating damaged frames saves time and bandwidth. This
protocol, known as CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection) is widely
used on LANs in the MAC sublayer.
• In particular, it is the basis of the popular Ethernet, LAN
CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)
CSMA/CD: Flow Diagram
CSMA/CD: Energy Level & Throughput
• Energy level during transmission, idleness, or collision

• Throughput of CSMA/CD is greater than that of ALOHA

• The max. throughput occurs at a different value of G and is based on
the persistent method and the value of p in the p-persistent approach
• The max throughput is around 50% when G=1 for 1-persistent, up to
90% when G is between 3 and 8 for non-persistent
 CSMA CD can be in one of three states:

Contention, Transmission or Idle

 Basic Concept
• At the point marked to, A station has finished transmitting its frame.
• Any other station having a frame to send may now attempt to do so.
• If two or more stations decide to transmit simultaneously, there will be a collision.
• Collisions can be detected by looking at the power or pulse width of the received signal
and comparing it to the transmitted signal.
• After a station detects a collision, it aborts its transmission, waits a random period of time,
and then tries again, assuming that no other station has started transmitting in the
meantime.
• Therefore, our model for CSMA/CD will consist of alternating contention and transmission
periods, with idle periods occurring when all stations are quiet (e.g., for lack of work).
• It is important to realize that collision detection is
an analog process.
• The station's hardware must listen to the cable
while it is transmitting.
• If what it reads back is different from what it is
putting out, it knows that a collision is occurring.
• The implication is that the signal encoding must
allow collisions to be detected, For this reason,
special encoding is commonly used.
• It is also worth noting that a sending station must
continually monitor the channel, listening for noise
bursts that might indicate a collision.
• For this reason, CSMA/CD with a single channel is
inherently a half-duplex system. (A half-duplex system provides for
communication in both directions, but only one direction at a time, not simultaneously.)

• It is impossible for a station to transmit and receive

frames at the same time because the receiving logic
is in use, looking for collisions during every
transmission.
• To avoid any misunderstanding, it is worth noting that
no MAC-sublayer protocol guarantees reliable delivery.
Even in the absence of collisions, the receiver may not
have copied the frame correctly for various reasons
(e.g., lack of buffer space or a missed interrupt).
Energy Level during transmission, Idleness or Collision
CSMA with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)

Note

In CSMA/CA, if the station finds the

channel busy, it does not restart the
timer of the contention window;
it stops the timer and restarts it when
the channel becomes idle.
Timing in CSMA/CA

Inter frame Space

 CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance)
• Invented for wireless network where we cannot detect collisions
• Collision are avoided through the use of CSMA/CA’s three strategies:
the interframe space, the contention windows, and acknowledgement

• IFS can also be used to define the priority of a station or a frame

• If the station finds the channel busy, it does not restart the timer of the
contention window; it stops the timer and restarts it when the channel
becomes idle
CSMA/CA: Flow Diagram
 Controlled Access
• The stations consult one another to find which station
has the right to send
• Reservation/Polling/ Token passing
• Reservation access method

In the first interval, only stations 1, 3, and 4 have made reservations. In the second
interval, only station 1 has made a reservation.
 Reservation
• In the reservation method, a station needs to make a
reservation before sending data.
• Time is divided into intervals. In each interval a reservation
frame precedes the data frames sent in that interval.
If there are N stations in the system, there are exactly N
reservation mini slots in the reservation frame. Each mini
slot belongs to a station. When a station needs to send a
data frame, it makes a reservation in its own mini slot. The
stations that have made reservations can send their data
frames after the reservation frame
 Polling

• Polling works with topologies in which one device is designated

as a primary station and the other devices are secondary
stations. All data exchanges must be made through the primary
device even when the ultimate destination is a secondary device.
The primary device controls the link; the secondary devices
follow its instructions. It is up to the primary device to determine
which device is allowed to use the channel at a given time.
• If the primary wants to receive data, it asks the secondary if they
have anything to send; this is called poll function. If the primary
wants to send data, it tells the secondary to get ready to receive;
this is called select function.
Polling: Select and Poll Functions

(ask)
 Token Passing

• In the token-passing method, the stations in a network are

organized in a logical ring. In other words, for each station,
there is a predecessor and a successor.
• In this method, a special packet called a token circulates
through the ring. The possession of the token gives the
station the right to access the channel and send its data .
When a station has some data to send, it waits until it
receives the token from its predecessor. It then holds the
token and sends its data. When the station has no more
data to send, it releases the token, passing it to the next
logical station in the ring. The station cannot send data until
it receives the token again in the next round. In this process,
when a station receives the token and has no data to send,
it just passes the data to the next station.
 Token Passing
• Logical Ring and physical topology
Characteristics of Token Passing Protocols

• Access of the network is guaranteed

• Priority schemes can be deployed
• Timers are used to ensure proper operation
• No collisions occur
• Time-sensitive applications can be supported
• A high degree of reliability (backup cabling
paths)
• More predictable than Ethernet
• Higher component costs (hubs, NICs)
 Channelization: FDMA
• FDMA
- In frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), the available bandwidth is
divided into frequency bands. Each station is allocated a band to send its
data. In other words , each band is reserved for a specific station, and it
belongs to the station all the time.
– FDMA is an access method in data link layer protocol. But, FDM is a
physical layer technique
 Channelization: TDMA
• TDMA
– In time-division multiple access (TDMA), the stations share the
bandwidth of the channel in time. Each station is allocated a time slot
during which it can send data.
– TDMA is an access method. But, TDM is a physical layer technique
 Channelization: CDMA (Code-Division
Multiple Access)
• One channel carries all transmissions simultaneously.
• Data = (d1.c1 + d2.c2 + d3.c3 + d4.c4) .c1
= d1.c1.c1 + d2.c2.c1 + d3.c3.c1 + d4.c4.c1 = 4.d1
 Five Categories of Connecting Devices

Below the physical layer: A passive hub

At the physical layer: repeater or active hub
At the physical and data link layers: bridge or two-layer switch
At the physical, data link, network layers: router or three-layer switch
At all five layers: gateway
 APPLICATION • APPLICATION GATEWAY
LAYER
• TRANSPORT GATEWAY
TRANSPORT LAYER

• ROUTER
NETWORK LAYER

• BRIDGE
DLL • SWITCH

• HUB
PHYSICAL LAYER • REPEATER
 Network Devices
• Provide transport for the data that needs to be
transferred between end-user devices.
• Extend cable connections
• Concentrate connections
• Convert Data Formats
• Manage data transfer
• Each topology and network architecture has its
limits.
• Beyond a point networks networks can not be
expanded by simple adding more servers or
cabling
• Connectivity devices are the basic building
blocks of network expansion
 Devices to Expand the Network

•Repeaters
•Bridges
•Switches
•Routers
•Gateway
 Repeaters
• A repeater can be used to increase the length of your network by
eliminating the effect of attenuation on the signal.
• It connects two segments of the same network, overcoming the
distance limitations of the transmission media.
• Some repeaters also serve as transmission media adapters,
connecting two different types of media.
• Repeaters can connect segments that have the same access method.
(CSMA/CD, Token Passing, Polling, etc.)
• Disadvantages
• Repeaters do not filter data
• Its use is inappropriate when there is a heavy network traffic.
A repeater operates only in the physical layers
A repeater connects segments of a LAN
The repeater is a two-port device that extends the LANs’ physical length
 Function of a Repeater
A repeater is a regenerator, not an amplifier
 Hubs
• A hub is used as a central point of connection
among media segments.

• Cables from network devices plug in to the ports

on the hub.

• Hubs are referred as Concentrators or multi-port

repeater

• Hubs receive signals from connected devices and

transmit them to the other connected devices
 Hubs

• Regenerate and repeat signals

• Propagate signals through the network
• Can not filter network traffic
• Can not determine the best path
• Are used as network concentration points.
 Types of Hubs
• Passive Hubs
• Active Hubs
• Intelligent Hubs (Switches)

• Hubs that are plugged into electric power are called Active
Hubs. It regenerates or amplifies the signal before they are
retransmitted.
• Drawback: The noise is also regenerated
• A hub that merely connects different cables on a network &
provide no signal regeneration is called a Passive Hub. It
functions only as a connection point for the signals . The
signal pass through a passive hub without regeneration or
amplification. is just a connector.
• TOPOLOGY
• Usually refers to the physical layout of network cable & devices.
• When all stations are connected to a central hub, the topology is known as
a star, because of its appearance.
 Hubs are physical-layer repeaters

• A repeater is specific hardware designed to overcome signal

attenuation (reduction)
Hubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters:
– bits coming from one link go out all other links
– at the same rate
– no frame buffering
– no CSMA/CD at hub: adapters detect collisions
– provides net management functionality
 Hubs
• Star topology

twisted pair

hub
 Interconnecting with hubs
 Backbone hub interconnects LAN segments
 Extends max distance between nodes
 But individual segment collision domains become one large collision
domain
 Can’t interconnect 10BaseT & 100BaseT
hub

hub
hub hub
 Advantages of Hubs

• Function
A network hub provides simple connectivity for a home network that
doesn't need complex switching to manage high rates of traffic.
• Cost
A simple network hub is significantly less expensive than a switch or
router. Some cost less than $30.
• Shared Internet Access
A network hub allows a single Internet connection to be shared among
multiple computers.
 Advantages cont…
• Scalability
Network hubs may have four, five, eight or 16 ports to which computers
can be connected. Many network hubs also have an "uplink" port which
allows the user to connect multiple hubs so that more computers can be
connected to the network.
• Network Monitoring
Because network hubs transmit all data received to all connected devices,
they allow easy, inexpensive monitoring of the entire network.
 Disadvantage of Hubs

• It is a non intelligent connection but tends to be

very cheap. It allows all machines to send packets
to every machine connected and wait for the
required machine to reply. This causes delays as all
the ports are used for every transmission.
 Bridges
• A bridge operates in both the physical and the data link layer.
• As a physical layer device, it regenerates the signal it receives.
• As a data link layer device, the bridge can check the physical (MAC)
addresses (source and destination) contained in the frame.
• Filters traffic between network segments by examining the destination
of MAC address.
• Based on this destination MAC address, the bridge either forwards or
discards the frame.
• When a client sends a broadcast frame to the entire network, the
bridge will always forward the frame.
• Connects two LAN segments to make one larger continuous LAN
Read network addresses at the MAC (Media Access Control) sub-layer

Decide whether or not to forward packet

Decide which segment address is on

Segmentation
80% of LAN traffic stays on local LAN

20% of LAN
traffic travels
between LANs

LAN A bridge LAN B

 Transparent Bridges
• Also called learning bridges because they build a table of MAC
addresses as they receive frames.
 This means that they “learn” which addresses are on which
segments
• Ethernet mainly use transparent bridges.
Transparent Bridges

Bridges
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Bridging

• Advantages of using a bridge includes:

• Bridges can extend a network by acting as a hub.
• Bridges can reduce network traffic on a segment by subdividing
network communications.
• Bridges increase the available bandwidth to individual nodes
because fewer nodes share a collision domain.
• Bridges reduce the likelihood of network collisions.
• Some bridges connect networks using different media types &
architecture.
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Bridging

• Disadvantages of using a bridge includes:

• Because bridges do more than hubs by viewing the MAC addresses, the extra
processing makes them slower then hubs.
• Bridges forward frames indiscriminately , so they do not filter broadcast traffic.
• Bridges are more expensive then hubs.
• Because bridges forward broadcast traffic can be a major disadvantage on a
network during a broadcast storm.
• Broadcast Storm:
 Excessive broadcast messages to every host on the network, launched by
multiple computers.
 Bridges

• Transparent bridges
– A bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of the bridge’s
existence
– Three criteria for a transparent bridge
• Frames must forward from one station to another
• The forwarding table is automatically made by learning frame movements
in the network
• Loops in the system must be prevented

• Source routing bridges

– A sending station defines the bridges that the frame must visit
– Not very common today
– It can prevent loops in a system with redundant bridges
 Switches

• Increase network performance by reducing the

number of packets transmitted to the rest of the
network.
• Have become the backbone for the Internet, running
the IP protocol.
• Like Bridges, they also operate at the Data Link layer
of the OSI Model.
• In an Ethernet network, computers are usually
connected directly to a switch.
• Sometimes called a multi-port bridge
• Switches data from incoming port to outgoing port
• Forwards data only to the appropriate port for the intended recipient
• Link layer device
• stores and forwards Ethernet frames
• examines frame header and selectively forwards frame based on MAC dest
address
• when frame is to be forwarded on segment, uses CSMA/CD to access segment
• transparent
• hosts are unaware of presence of switches
 plug-and-play, self learning
• switches do not need to be configured
 Switch : Traffic Isolation
 switch installation breaks subnet into LAN segments
 switch filters packets:
 same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN
segments
 segments become separate collision domains

switch

collision
domain

hub
hub hub

collision domain collision domain

 Switches: dedicated access
A
• Switch with many interfaces
C’ B
• Hosts have direct connection
to switch
• No collisions; full duplex switch

Switching: A-to-A’ and B-to-B’

simultaneously, no collisions C

B’ A’
 Institutional network
mail server
to external
network
router web server

switch
IP subnet

hub
hub hub
 Advantages of Switches
• Switches increase available network bandwidth.
• With switches there is reduced workload on individual
computers.
• Switches increase network performance.
• There are fewer frame collisions because switches create
collision domains for each connection.
• Switches have an unlimited number of ports and connect
directly to workstations.
 Disadvantages of Switches
• Switches are significantly more expensive then
Bridges.
• Network connectivity problems can be difficult
to trace through a switch.
• Broadcast traffic maybe troublesome.
 Router
• A router is a three-layer device that routes packets based on
their logical addresses (host-to-host addressing). A router
normally connects LANs and WANs in the Internet
and has a routing table that is used for making decisions
about the route. The routing tables are normally dynamic
and are updated using routing protocols.
• Provide filtering & network traffic control over LANs & MANs.
• Can connect multiple segments & networks.
 Networks connected by Routers are called internetworks
because they create a larger network of interconnected,
smaller networks.
 Router cont…

 Most important traffic-regulating device on a

network
-Examines incoming packets
-Chooses the best path for them through the network
-Switches them to the proper outgoing port
-Bases forwarding decisions on network addresses
 Advantages of Routers
• Routers can connect different network architectures.
• Routers can choose the best path across the network
using dynamic routing techniques.
• Routers can create collision domains by segmenting the
network.
• Routers reduce network traffic because they do not
retransmit network broadcast traffic.
 Disadvantages of Routers
• Routers work only with routable network protocols.
• Routers are more expensive then Bridges or Hubs.
• Dynamic router communication causes additional network
overhead.
• Routers are slower then Switches or Bridges because they
must analyze the data transmission from the physical through
the network layer.
 Gateway
• A network gateway is an internetworking
system capable of joining together two
networks that use different base protocols.

• A gateway is a combination of hardware and

software that translates between two
different protocols and acts as the connection
point to the Internet
 Transport gateway
• These connect two computers that use different connection-
oriented transport protocols.
• For example, suppose a computer using the connection-
oriented TCP/IP protocol needs to talk to a computer using
the connection-oriented OSI transport protocol.
 Application Gateways
• application gateways understand the format
and contents of the data and translate
messages from one format to another.

• An e-mail gateway could translate Internet

messages into SMS messages for mobile
phones
 Token Ring Defined
Token”-procedure: Only someone who possesses a certain token (=
bit sequence), may send.
• based on standard IEEE 802.5 “Token Ring”
• the stations share a ring of point-to-point connections
• the token is cyclically passed on
→ particularly suitable for rings
→Token Ring (4/16/100 Mbit/s)
Characteristics:
• guaranteed access, no collisions
• very good utilization of the network capacity,
high efficiency
• fair, guaranteed response times
• possible: multiple tokens
• however: complex and expensive
 Token Ring / IEEE 802.5
• Token ring is a token-passing LAN development that runs on a
logical ring topology .
• Token Ring / IEEE 802.5 run at 4 and 16 Mbps
• An active monitor device is responsible for managing a Token Ring
network. This reduces the possibility of error and eliminates the
possibility of collision.
 Current Usage
• In the 4-16 Mbps range, the token ring remains an efficient
LAN technology
• 100 Mbps Token Ring networks are now used in the field
• Token ring technology is used for the backbone in large
networks where the operating speed is in the range of 100
Mbps
– An example is FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface provides a 100Mbps
optical standard for data transmission in a local area network that can extend in range up
to 200 kilometers (124 miles) )
 Frame Format
Source Address
Start Frame Frame Check
Control Sequence

Data

Access
Control End Frame
Destination
Delimiter Status
Address
Access within a Token Ring
Example: Station 2 sends to station 1
1. Station 2 waits for free token
(transmission authorization, 3-Byte-
Token).
2. Station 2 changes free token into an
occupied one (occupied token =
frame header).
Afterwards, station 2 sends the
frame. (Station 2 may send further
frames, if the token holding timer
(default 10 ms) is not exceeded)
3. Station 2 terminates the frame and
waits until the frame passed the
whole ring and arrives again.
4. Station 1 copies the frame. Station 2
removes it from the ring and
produces a new, free token.
Token Passing
Token Passing
Token Passing
Token Passing
 Token Bus(802.4)

• Definition Bus: A single communication line, typically a twisted pair,

coaxial cable, or optical fiber, represents the primary medium.
• IEEE Standards :
Token Bus was a 4 Mbps Local Area Networking technology created by
Token bus utilized a copper coaxial cable to connect multiple end stations
IN THE BUS RING TOPOLOGY also called token bus the stations are
connected to single cable called bus.

They make a logical ring.

When a station has finished sending it releases the token and inserts the
address of the next station in its token.
Only the station with the address matching the destination address of the
token gets the token to access the shared media.
A Token Bus Network
Token Passing in a Token Bus Network
Token Passing in a Token Bus Network
“Token”-procedure: Only someone who possesses a certain token (= bit sequence),
may send.
• One example for a token network: IEEE 802.4 “Token Bus”
• All stations should be treated equally, i.e. they have to pass on the token cyclically
• For this: logical ordering of all stations to a ring
• In a bus topology, ordering is made regarding station addresses:
Message Exchange in Token Bus
Two types of messages are used:

• Token messages TID, nextID

• Data messages MID

Token messages are used for passing on the sending permission from station
ID to station nextID.
Data messages contain the data to be sent
Having the token, a station is allowed to send a message. After this (or if
nothing is to be sent) the token is passed on.
Traffic on the bus e.g.:
T5,17 → M17 → T17,21 → M21 → T21,22 → T22,42 → T42,63 → M63 → T63,149 → T149,5
→ M5 → T5,17 → …
High overhead for token exchange: 512 Bit times for each token message (a full
small size Ethernet frame)! In contrast to that, in Token Ring networks only one
bit is to be switched from 0 to 1, i.e. only one bit time for a token message.
Thus, the number of participating stations should be low, or the number of
masters should be low, you can tolerate very many slaves
Token Bus Frame Format
 Token Bus vs. Token Ring
• The token bus operates on the same principle as the token ring. The
stations are organized into a ring and a token passes among them. A
station wanting to send something must wait for the token to arrive.
• The stations communicate via a common bus in an Ethernet.
• Generally, a station receives a token from its predecessor and sends
a token to its successor.
• Token bus stations must know their predecessor and successor.