CENTRAL

PROCESSING
UNIT

E5164 DIAGNOSIS SENGGARAAN SISTEM KOMPUTER

 TITLE
Identify the major components
of a personal computer;CPU

TARIKH:6 APRIL 2011

NAMA:MOHD FARID ABDUL RAHIM
NO.MATRIK:10 PTK 09 S 1007
NAMA PENSYARAH:EN.MOHD RIZAL HUSSAIN
 CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 HISTORY
3.0 CPU COOLING
4.0 OPERATION
5.0 DESIGN & IMPLEMENTAION
6.0 CONCLUSION
7.0 REFERENCE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The central processing unit (CPU) is
the portion of a computer system that
carries out the instructions of a computer
program
 the primary element carrying out the
computer's functions.
carries out each instruction of the
program in sequence, to perform the
basic arithmetical, logical, and
input/output operations of the system.
 2.0 HISTORY
In the Beginning, there
Intel 8086 (1978)
was 8086…
 This chip was skipped over for the
 CPUs have gone through original PC, but was used in a few
many changes through the later computers that didn’t amount to
few years since Intel came out much. It was a true 16-bit processor
with the first one. IBM chose and talked with its cards via a 16
Intel’s 8088 processor for the wire data connection. The chip
brains of the first PC. contained 29,000 transistors and 20
address lines that gave it the ability
 This choice by IBM is what
to talk with up to 1 MB of RAM.
made Intel the perceived
What is interesting is that the
leader of the CPU market. designers of the time never suspected
Intel remains the perceived anyone would ever need more than 1
leader of microprocessor MB of RAM. The chip was available
development. in 5, 6,, 8, and 10 MHz versions.
 NEC V20 and V30
Intel 8088 (1979)
(1981)
 The 8088 is, for all practical  Clones of the 8088 and
purposes, identical to the 8086. They are supposed
8086. The only difference is to be about 30% faster
that it handles its address than the Intel ones,
lines differently than the though.
8086.
 This chip was the one that
was chosen for the first IBM
PC, and like the 8086, it is
able to work with the 8087
math coprocessor chip.
 Intel 80186 (1980) Intel 80286 (1982)

 The 186 was a popular chip. Many A 16-bit, 134,000 transistor processor capable of
versions have been developed in its addressing up to 16 MB of RAM. In addition to
history. Buyers could choose from the increased physical memory support, this chip
CHMOS or HMOS, 8-bit or 16-bit is able to work with virtual memory hereby
versions, depending on what they allowing much for expandability. The 286 was the
needed. A CHMOS chip could run at first “real” processor. It introduced the concept of
twice the clock speed and at one protected mode. This is the ability to multitask,
fourth the power of the HMOS chip. having different programs run separately but at
the same time. This ability was not taken
 In 1990, Intel came out with the advantage of by DOS, but future Operating
Enhanced 186 family. They all shared Systems, such as Windows, could play with this
a common core design. They had a 1- new feature. On the the drawbacks of this ability,
micron core design and ran at about though, was that while it could switch from real
25MHz at 3 volts. The 80186 mode to protected mode (real mode was intended
contained a high level of integration, to make it backwards compatible with the 8088′s),
with the system controller, interrupt it could not switch back to real mode without a
controller, DMA controller and timing warm reboot. This chip was used by IBM in its
circuitry right on the CPU. Despite Advanced Technology PC/AT and was used in a
lot of IBM-compatibles. It ran at 8, 10, and 12.5
this, the 186 never found itself in a
MHz, but later editions of the chip ran as high as
personal computer.
20 MHz. While these chips are considered
paperweights today, they were rather
revolutionary for the time period.
Intel 386 (1985 – 1990) Intel 486 (1989 – 1994)
 The 80486DX was released in 1989. It was a
 The 386 signified a major 32-bit processor containing 1.2 million
increase in technology from transistors. It had the same memory capacity
Intel. The 386 was a 32-bit as the 386 (both were 32-bit) but offered twice
the speed at 26.9 million instructions per
processor, meaning its data second (MIPS) at 33 MHz. There are some
throughput was immediately improvements here, though, beyond just
twice that of the 286. speed. The 486 was the first to have an
Containing 275,000 integrated floating point unit (FPU) to replace
transistors, the 80386DX the normally separate math coprocessor (not
all flavors of the 486 had this, though). It also
processor came in 16, 20, 25, contained an integrated 8 KB on-die cache.
and 33 MHz versions. The This increases speed by using the instruction
32-bit address bus allowed pipelining to predict the next instructions and
the chip to work with a full 4 then storing them in the cache. Then, when the
GB of RAM and a staggering processor needs that data, it pulls it out of the
cache rather than using the necessary
64 TB of virtual memory. overhead to access the external memory. Also,
the 486 came in 5 volt and 3 volt versions,
allowing flexibility for desktops and laptops.
 AM486DX Series AMD AM5x86 (1995)
(1994 – 1995)
 This is the chip that put AMD onto the map as
 Intel was not the only official Intel competition. While I am
mentioning it here on the 486 page of the
manufacturer playing in the history lesson, it was actually AMD’s
sandbox at the time. AMD put competitive response to Intel’s Pentium-class
out its AM486 series in answer processor. Users of the Intel 486 processor, in
to Intel’s counterpart. AMD order to get Pentium-class performance, had to
released the chip in make use of an expensive OverDrive
processor or ditch their motherboard in favor
AM486DX4/75, of a true Pentium board. AMD saw an opening
AM486DX4/100, and here, and the AM5x86 was designed to offer
AM486DX4/120 versions. It Pentium-class performance while operating on
contained on-board cache, a standard 486 motherboard.. They did this by
power management features, 3- designing the 5×86 to run at 133MHz by
clock-quadrupling a 33 MHz chip. This 33
volt operation and SMM mode. MHz bus allowed it to work on 486 boards.
This made the chip fitting for This speed also allowed it to support the 33
mobiles in addition to desktops. MHz PCI bus. The chip also had 16 KB on-die
The chip found its way into cache. All of this together, and the 5×86
performed better than a Pentium-75. The chip
many 486-compatibles.
became the de facto upgrade for 486 users who
did not want to ditch their 486-based PCs yet.
 The Pentium (1993) The Pentium Pro
(1995-1999)
 By this time, the Intel 486 was
entrenched into the market. Also, people
were used to the traditional 80×86  If the regular Pentium is an ape,
naming scheme. Intel was busy working this processor evolved into being
on its next generation of processor. It human. The Pentium Pro (also
was not to be called the 80586, though. called “P6″ or “PPro”) is a RISC
There were some legal issues chip with a 486 hardware emulator
surrounding the ability for Intel to on it, running at 200 MHz or
trademark the numbers 80586. So, below. Several techniques are used
instead, Intel changed the name of the
by this chip to produce more
processor to the Pentium, a name they
could easily trademark. They released performance than its predecessors.
the Pentium in 1993. The original Increased speed is achieved by
Pentium performed at 60 MHz and 100 dividing processing into more
MIPS. Also called the “P5″ or “P54″, the stages, and more work is done
chip contained 3.21 million transistors within each clock cycle. Three
and worked on the 32-bit address bus instructions can be decoded in each
(same as the 486). It has a 64-bit external clock cycle, as opposed to only
data bus which could operate at roughly two for the Pentium.
twice the speed of the 486.
 Cyrix 6×86 Series
(1995)
MediaGX (1996)
 Cyrix, by this time, was a major player
in the alternative processor market.  MediaGX was Cyrix’s answer to low-
They had been around since 1992, with
cost entry level PC’s. Making use of a
their release of the 486SLC. By 1995,
standard x86 processor core the chip
they had their own 5×86 processor and
it was considered the only real
lowered the cost of PCs using it by
competition to the AMD counterpart. integrating many of the common PC
But, they released their 6×86 in 1995. It components into the chip itself.
was designed to go head to head with MediaGX had integrated audio and
Intel’s Pentium processor. Dubbed video circuitry, as well as circuitry to
“M1″, the chip contained two super- handle many of the common tasks
pipelined integer units, an on-die FPU, normally handled by chips on the
and 16 KB of write-back cache. It used motherboard itself. The CPU spoke
many of the same techniques internally directly to a PCI bus and DRAM
as the Intel and AMD chips to increase memory, and the video was rather high-
performance. Like AMD beginning with quality SVGA (for the time). It could
their K5 (see below), Cyrix used the P- support up to 128 MB of EDO RAM in
rating system. It came in PR-120, 133, 4 separate memory banks, and the video
150, 166 and 200 versions. Each rating sub-system could support resolutions of
had a “+” after it, indicating that it up to 1280x1024x8 or 1024x768x16.
performed better than the corresponding
Pentium. But, did it?
 AMD K5 (1996)
Pentium MMX (1997)
 While AMD was competing with Intel with  Intel released many different flavors of the
their 5×86 processor, this chip was not a Pentium processor. One of the more improved
true Pentium alternative. In 1996, however, flavors was the Pentium MMX, released in
AMD released the K5. This chip was 1997. It was a move by Intel to improve the
designed to go head to head with the original Pentium and make it better serve the
needs in the multimedia and performance
Pentium processor. It was designed to fit
department. One of the key enhancements,
right into Socket 7 motherboards, allowing
and where it gets its name from, is the MMX
users to drop K5′s into the motherboards instruction set. The MMX instructions were an
they might have already had. The chip was extension off the normal instruction set. The
fully compatible with all x86 software. In 57 additional streamlined instructions helped
order to rate the speed of the chips, AMD the processor perform certain key tasks in a
devised the P-rating system (or PR rating). streamlined fashion, allowing it to do some
This number identified the speed as tasks with one instruction that it would have
compared to the true Intel Pentium taken more regular instructions to do. It paid
equivalent. K5′s ran from 75 MHz to 166 off, too. The Pentium MMX performed up to
MHz (in P-ratings, that is). They contained 10-20% faster with standard software, and
24KB of L1 cache and 4.3 million higher with software optimized for the MMX
instructions. Many multimedia applications
transistors. While the K5′s were nice little
and games that took advantage of MMX
chips for what they were, AMD quickly
performed better, had higher frame rates, etc.
moved on with their release of K6.
 AMD K6 (1997) Cyrix 6x86MX (1997)

 The K6 gave AMD a real leg up in  Well, Intel came up with MMX
performance, and it virtually closed the gap and AMD was already using it
between Intel and AMD in terms of Intel
starting with the K6. So, Cyrix
being perceived as the real performance
processor. The K6 processor compared, had to get in on the game as
performance-wise, to the new Intel Pentium well. The 6x86MX, also
II’s, but the K6 was still Socket 7 meaning it dubbed “M2″, was Cyrix’s
was still a Pentium alternative. The K6 took
on the MMX instruction set developed by
answer. This processor took on
Intel, allowing it to go head to head with the MMX instruction set, as
Pentium MMX. Based on the RISC86 well as took an increased 64KB
microarchitecture, the K6 contained seven
cache and an increase in speed.
parallel execution engines and two-level
branch prediction. It contained 64KB of L1 The first M2′s were 150 MHz
cache (32KB for data and 32KB for chips, or a P-rating of PR166
instructions). It made use of SMM power (Yes, M2′s also used the P-
management, leading to mobile version of
this chip hitting the market. During its life
rating system). The fastest ones
span, it was released in 166MHz to 300 MHz operated at 333 MHz, or PR-
versions. It gave the early Pentium II’s a run 466.
for their money, but AMD had to improve on
it in order to keep up with Intel for long.
 Pentium II (1997) Celeron (1998)
 ntel made some major changes to the processor  About the time Intel was releasing the
scene with the release of the Pentium II. They improved P2′s (Deschutes), they decided to
had the PentiumMMX and Pentium Pro’s out tackle the entry level market with a stripped
into the marketin a strong way, and they wanted
down version of the Pentium II, the Celeron.
to bring the best of both into one chip. As a
result, the Pentium II is kind of like the child of In order to decrease costs, Intel removed the
a Pentium MMX mother and the Pentium Pro L2 cache from the Pentium II. They also
Father. But like real life, it doesn’t necessarily removed the support for dual processors, an
combine the best of it’s parents. Pentium II is ability that the Pentium II had. Additionally,
optimized for 32-bit applications. It also they ditched the plastic cover which the P2
contains the MMX instruction set, which is had, leaving simply the processor on the
almost a standard by this time. The chip uses the Slot 1 style card. This, no doubt, reduced
dynamic execution technology of the Pentium
the cost of the processor quite a bit, but
Pro, allowing the processor to predict coming
instructions, accelerating work flow. It actually performance suffered noticeably. Removing
analyzes program instruction and re-orders the the L2 cache from a chip seriously hampers
schedule of instructions into an order that can be its performance. On top of that, the chip was
run the quickest. Pentium II has 32KB of L1 still limited to the 66MHz system bus. As a
cache (16KB each for data and instructions) and result, competitor chips at the same clock
has a 512KB of L2 cache on package. The L2 speeds could still outperform the Celeron.
cache runs at ½ the speed of the processor, not What was the point?
at full speed. Nonetheless, the fact that the L2
cache is not on the motherboard, but instead in
the chip itself, boosts performance.
 AMD K6-2 & K6-3
(1998) Pentium III (1999)
 Intel released the Pentium III “Katmai” processor in
February of 1999, running at 450 MHz on a 100MHz
 AMD was a busy little company at the time Intel
bus. Katmai introduced the SSE instruction set,
was playing around with their Pentium II’s and
which was basically an extension of MMX that again
Celerons. In 1998, AMD released the K6-2. The
improved the performance on 3D apps designed to
“2″ shows that there are some enhancements
use the new ability. Also dubbed MMX2, SSE
made onto the proven K6 core, with higher
contained 70 new instructions, with four
speeds and higher bus speeds. They probably
simultaneous instructions able to be performed
were also taking a page out of the Pentium “2″
simultaneously. This original Pentium III worked off
book. The most notable new feature of the K6-2
what was a slightly improved P6 core, so the chip
was the addition of 3DNow technology. Just as
was well suited to multimedia applications. The chip
Intel created the MMX instruction set to speed
multimedia applications, AMD created 3DNow saw controversy, though, when Intel decided to
to act as an additional 21 instructions on top of include integrated “processor serial number” (PSN)
the MMX instruction set. With software on Katmai. the PSN was designed to be able to be
designed to use the 3DNow instructions, read over a network, even the internet. The idea, as
multimedia applications get even more boost. Intel saw it, was to increase the level of security in
Using 3DNow, larger L1 cache, on-die L2 cache online transactions. End users saw it differently.
and Socket 7 usability, the K6-2 gained ranks in They saw it as an invasion of privacy. After taking a
the market without too much trouble. When used hit in the eye from the PR perspective and getting
with Socket 7 boards that contained L2 cache on some pressure from their customers, Intel eventually
board, the integrated L2 cache on the processor allowed the tag to be turned off in the BIOS. Katmai
made the motherboard cache considered L3 eventually saw 600 MHz, but Intel quickly moved on
cache. to the Coppermine.
 AMD Athlon (1999 –
Present) Celeron II (2000)

 With the release of the Athlon processor in 1999,  Just as the Pentium III was a Pentium II
AMD’s status in the high performance realm was with SSE and a few added features, the
placed in concrete. The Athlon line continues to this Celeron II is simply a Celeron with a SSE,
day, with the highest clock speeds all operating off of SSE2, and a few added features. The chip is
various designs and improvements off of the Athlon available from 533 MHz to 1.1 GHz. This
series. But, the whole line started with the original chip was basically an enhancement of the
Athlon classic. The original Athlon came at 500MHz. original Celeron, and it was released in
Designed at a 0.25 micron level, the chip boasted a response to AMD’s coming competition in
super-pipelined, superscalar microarchitecture. It
the low-cost market with the Duron. The
contained nine execution pipelines, a super-pipelined
FPU and an again-enhanced 3dNow technology. PSN of the Pentium III had been disabled
These issues all rolled into one gave Athlon a real in the Celeron II, with Intel stating that the
performance reputation. One notable feature of the feature was not necessary in the entry-level
Athlon is the new Slot interface. While Intel could consumer market. Due to some
play games by patenting Slot 1, AMD decided to call inefficiencies in the L2 cache and still
the bet by developing a Slot of their own – Slot A. using the 66MHz bus (unless you
Slot A looks just like Slot 1, although they are not overclock), this chip would not hold up too
electrically compatible. But, the closeness of the two well against the Duron despite being based
interfaces allowed motherboard manufacturers to on the trusted Coppermine core. Celeron II
more easily manufacturer mainboard PCBs that could
would not be released with true 100 MHz
be interchangeable. They would not have to re-
design an entire board to accommodate either Intel or bus support until the 800MHz edition,
AMD – they could do both without too much hassle. which was put out at the beginning of 2001.
 Duron (2000 – Pentium IV (2000 –
Current) Current)
 In April of 2000, AMD released the
 While we have been talking about
Duron “Spitfire”. Spitfire came
primarily out of the Athlon Thunderbird AMD’s high-speed Athlon
Thunderbirds and Palominos, Intel
lineage, but it had a lighter load of
actually beat AMD to the gun by
cache onboard, ensuring that it was not
releasing Pentium IV Willamette in
a contender in the performance realm
November of 2000. Pentium IV was
with its big cousin. The chip had a 128
exactly what Intel needed to again
KB L1 cache, but only 64 KB of on-die
take the torch from AMD. Pentium
L2. Despite the lower L2 cache, internal
IV is a truly new CPU architecture
methods of dealing with the L2 cache
and serves as the beginning to new
coupled with other improvements make
technologies we will see for the next
the Duron a clear winner when
several years. The new NetBurst
compared against the Celeron. Duron
architecture is designed with future
also works with the EV6 bus while
speed increase in mind, meaning P4
Celeron was still working with 66 MHz
is not going to fade away quickly
bus, and this did not help Celeron at all.
like Pentium III near the 1 GHz
mark.
2000-current
Intel Pentium M is introduced in March 2003.
Intel releases the Core2 Duo Processor E6320 (4M
Cache, 1.86 GHz, 1066 MHz FSB) April 22, 2006.
Intel introduces the Intel Core 2 Duo processors
with the Core 2 Duo Processor E6300 (2M Cache,
1.86 GHz, 1066 MHz FSB) July 27, 2006.
Intel releases the Core2 Duo Processor E4300 (2M
Cache, 1.80 GHz, 800 MHz FSB) January 21,
2007.
Intel releases the Core2 Duo Processor E4500 (2M
Cache, 2.20 GHz, 800 MHz FSB) July 22, 2007.
Intel releases the the Core 2 Duo E7200 (3M Cache,
2.53 GHz, 1066 MHz FSB) on April 20, 2008.
Intel releases the Core2 Duo Processor E7300 (3M
Cache, 2.66 GHz, 1066 MHz FSB) August 10, 2008.
Intel releases the Core2 Duo Processor E7400 (3M
Cache, 2.80 GHz, 1066 MHz FSB) October 19, 2008.
Intel releases the Core2 Duo Processor E7500 (3M
Cache, 2.93 GHz, 1066 MHz FSB) January 18, 2009
Intel releases the Core2 Duo Processor E7600 (3M
Cache, 3.06 GHz, 1066 MHz FSB) May 31, 2009
3.0 CPU COOLING
required to remove the waste heat
produced.
to keep components within their safe
operating temperature limits.
Various cooling methods help to
improve processor performance or
reduce the noise of cooling fans.
Cooling can be hindered by:
Dust acting as a thermal insulator and
impeding airflow, thereby reducing heat
sink and fan performance.
Poor airflow including turbulence due to
friction against impeding components such
as ribbon cables, or improper orientation of
fans, can reduce the amount of air flowing
through a case and even create localized
whirlpools of hot air in the case.
Poor heat transfer due to a lack of, or
poor application of thermal compounds and
sufficient surface area of heat sinks to
radiate off the heat.
 Cooling Method
Damage prevention Air cooling

 Thermal sensors in some CPUs  Fans are most commonly

and GPUs can shut down the used for air cooling. A
computer when high temperatures computer fan may be
are detected. However, reliance on attached to the computer
such measures may not prevent case, or attached to a CPU,
repeated incidents from GPU chipset, PSU, hard
permanently damaging the drive or PCI slot. Common
integrated circuit. fan sizes include 40, 60, 80,
92, 120, and 140 mm.
 An integrated circuit may also shut Recently, 200mm fans have
down parts of the circuit when it is begun to creep into the
idling, or to scale back the clock performance market, as well
speed under low workloads or high as even larger sizes such as
temperatures, with the goal of 230 and 240mm.
reducing both power use and heat
generation.
 Liquid submersion Waste heat reduction
cooling
 Where full-power, full-featured
 The liquid used must have
sufficiently low electrical
modern computers are not
conductivity in order for it not to required, some companies opt
interfere with the normal operation to use less powerful computers
of the computer's components. If or computers with fewer
the liquid is somewhat electrically features. For example: in an
conductive, it may be necessary to office setting, the
insulate certain parts of ITdepartment may choose a
components susceptible to
electromagnetic interference such
thin client or a diskless
as the CPU. For these reasons, it is workstation thus cutting out
preferred that the liquid be the heat-laden components
dielectric. such as hard drives and optical
disks. These devices are also
 Liquids commonly used in this
manner include various liquids
often powered with direct
invented and manufactured for this current from an external power
purpose by 3M, such as Fluorinert. supply brick which still wastes
Various oils, including but not heat, but not inside the
limited to cooking, motor and computer itself.
silicone oils have all been
successfully used for cooling  The components used can
personal computers. greatly affect the power
consumption and hence waste
heat.
 Conductive and Spot cooling
radiative cooling
 In addition to system
 Some laptop components,
cooling, various individual
such as hard drives and
components usually have
optical drives, are
their own cooling systems
commonly cooled by
in place. Components
having them make
which are individually
contact with the
cooled include, but are
computer's frame,
not limited to, the CPU,
increasing the surface
GPU and the Northbridge
area which can radiate
chip. Some cooling
and otherwise exchange
solutions employ one or
heat.
more methods of cooling,
and may also utilize logic
and/or temperature
sensors in order to vary
the power used in active
cooling components.
 Passive heat-sink Active heat-sink
cooling cooling

 Passive heat-sink cooling  uses the same principle as

involves attaching a block of passive, with the addition of a
machined or extruded metal to fan that blows over or
the part that needs cooling. A through the heat sink. The air
thermal adhesive may be used. movement increases the rate
at which the heat sink can
 The heat conductivity of metal
exchange heat with the
is much better than that of air, ambient air. Active heat sinks
and it radiates heat better than are the primary method of
does the component that it is cooling modern processors
protecting and graphics cards.
 Until recently, fan-cooled  The buildup of dust is greatly
aluminium heat sinks were the increased with active heat-
norm for desktop computers. sink cooling, because the fan
Today, many heat sinks feature continually takes in the dust
copper base-plates or are present in the surrounding
entirely made of copper. air.
 Heat pipe
Water cooling
 is a hollow tube containing
 water cooling has become a
a heat transfer liquid.
practice largely associated
with overclocking in the  As the liquid evaporates, it
form of either carries heat to the cool end,
manufactured kits, or in the where it condenses and
form of do-it-yourself then returns to the hot end
setups assembled from (under capillary action, or,
individually gathered parts. in earlier implementations,
under gravitation)
 Water has the ability to
dissipate more heat from  Heat pipes thus have a
the parts being cooled than much higher effective
the various types of metals thermal conductivity than
used in heatsinks, making it solid materials.
suitable for overclocking
and high performance
computer applications
Phase-change cooling Liquid nitrogen

 is an extremely effective way  As liquid nitrogen boils at

to cool the processor. -196 °C, far below the
 A vapor compression phase- freezing point of water, it is
change cooler is a unit which valuable as an extreme
usually sits underneath the PC, coolant for short
with a tube leading to the overclocking sessions.
processor. Inside the unit is a
compressor of the same type as  In a typical installation of
in a window air conditioner. liquid nitrogen cooling, a
The compressor compresses a copper or aluminum pipe is
gas (or mixture of gases) mounted on top of the
which condenses it into a processor or graphics card.
liquid. Then, the liquid is
After being heavily
pumped up to the processor,
where it passes through an insulated against
expansion device, this can be condensation, the liquid
from a simple capillary tube to nitrogen is poured into the
a more elaborate thermal pipe, resulting in
expansion valve. temperatures well below
-100°C.
 Liquid helium Soft cooling

 is the practice of utilizing

 colder than liquid nitrogen, software to take
has also been used for advantage of CPU power
cooling. Liquid helium saving technologies to
evaporates at -269 °C, and minimize energy use. This
temperatures ranging from is done using halt
-230 to -240 °C have been instructions to turn off or
measured from the put in standby state CPU
heatsink. subparts that aren't being
used or by underclocking
the CPU.
 Cooling and
Undervolting overclocking
 Extra cooling is usually required
 is a practice of running the
by those who run parts of their
CPU or any other component computer (such as the CPU and
with voltages below the device GPU) at higher voltages and
specifications. An undervolted frequencies than manufacturer
component draws less power specifications call for, called
and thus produces less heat. overclocking Increasing
performance by this modification
 The ability to do this varies by of settings results in a greater
manufacturer, product line, and amount of heat generated and thus
even different production runs increasing the risk of damage to
components and/or premature
of the same exact product (as
failure.
well as that of other
components in the system), but  The installation of higher
modern processors are performance, non-stock cooling
typically shipped with voltages may also be considered modding.
Many overclockers simply buy
higher than strictly necessary.
more efficient, and often, more
expensive fan and heat sink
combinations, while others resort
to more exotic ways of computer
cooling, such as liquid cooling,
Peltier effect heatpumps, heat pipe
or phase change cooling.
4.0 OPERATION
The fundamental operation of most
CPUs, regardless of the physical
form they take, is to execute a
sequence of stored instructions called
a program.
The program is represented by a
series of numbers that are kept in
some kind of computer memory.
There are four steps that nearly all
CPUs use in their operation: fetch,
decode, execute, and writeback.
FETCH
 involves retrieving an instruction from program
memory.
 The location in program memory is determined by a
program counter (PC), which stores a number that
identifies the current position in the program.
 After an instruction is fetched, the PC is
incremented by the length of the instruction word
in terms of memory units.
 Often, the instruction to be fetched must be
retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the
CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be
returned. This issue is largely addressed in modern
processors by caches and pipeline architectures.
DECODE
 the instruction is broken up into parts that have significance to other
portions of the CPU. The way in which the numerical instruction
value is interpreted is defined by the CPU's instruction set
architecture (ISA).
 Often, one group of numbers in the instruction, called the opcode,
indicates which operation to perform. The remaining parts of the
number usually provide information required for that instruction,
such as operands for an addition operation. Such operands may be
given as a constant value (called an immediate value), or as a place to
locate a value: a register or a memory address, as determined by
some addressing mode.
 In older designs the portions of the CPU responsible for instruction
decoding were unchangeable hardware devices. However, in more
abstract and complicated CPUs and ISAs, a microprogram is often
used to assist in translating instructions into various configuration
signals for the CPU. This microprogram is sometimes rewritable so
that it can be modified to change the way the CPU decodes
instructions even after it has been manufactured.
EXECUTE
 During this step, various portions of the CPU are
connected so they can perform the desired operation. If,
for instance, an addition operation was requested, the
arithmetic logic unit(ALU) will be connected to a set of
inputs and a set of outputs. The inputs provide the
numbers to be added, and the outputs will contain the
final sum.
 The ALU contains the circuitry to perform simple
arithmetic and logical operations on the inputs (like
addition and bitwise operations). If the addition
operation produces a result too large for the CPU to
handle, an arithmetic overflow flag in a flags register
may also be set.
WRITEBACK
 simply "writes back" the results of the execute step to some form
of memory.
 Very often the results are written to some internal CPU register
for quick access by subsequent instructions. In other cases results
may be written to slower, but cheaper and larger, main memory.
Some types of instructions manipulate the program counter
rather than directly produce result data. These are generally
called "jumps" and facilitate behavior like loops conditional
program execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and
functions in programs.
 After the execution of the instruction and writeback of the
resulting data, the entire process repeats, with the next
instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence
instruction because of the incremented value in the program
counter. If the completed instruction was a jump, the program
counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction
that was jumped to, and program execution continues normally .
5.0 DESIGN & IMPLEMENTATION

CPU design focuses on these areas:

1. Datapath.(such as ALUs and pipelines)
2. Control unit: logic which controls the datapath.
3. Memory components such as register files,
caches
4. Clock circuitry such as clock drivers, PLLs,
clock distribution networks
5. Pad transceiver circuitry
6. Logic gate cell library which is used to
implement the logic
Each successive generation of CPU might
be designed to achieve some of these
goals:
higher performance levels of a single program
or thread
higher throughput levels of multiple
programs/threads
less power consumption for the same
performance level
lower cost for the same performance level
greater connectivity to build larger, more
parallel systems
more specialization to aid in specific targeted
markets
6.0 CONCLUSION
As a conclusion,a CPU is just like a
brain for human. The form, design and
implementation of CPUs have changed
dramatically since the earliest examples,
but their fundamental operation remains
much the same.
7.0 REFERENCE
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processi
ng_unit
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_design
http://www.pcmech.com/article/a-cpu-
history/11/
http://www.computerhope.com/history/2000.
htm