Wireless Cellular Networks

(basics)

Part 3 – GSM networks

Giuseppe Bianchi
 History of Cellular systems
 1960's: Bell Labs developed cellular concept
 1974-1978: First field Trial for Cellular System
 AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System), Chicago
 1981, Sweden, first European Systems
 NMT-450 (Nordic Mobile Telephone)
 1985, first italian cellular system
 RTMS (Radio Telefono Mobile di Seconda Generazione), 450 MhZ
 1990, TACS, first italian widespread systems
 Total Access Communication System (TACS, 900 MHZ)
 Second generation system:
 GSM in europe, D-AMPS & IS95 (CDMA) in USA, PDC Japan
 Digital, versus fist generation analog (frequency modulation)
 GSM:
 Specification started in 1982; EU deployment since 1992; DCS-1800 since 1994
 Generation 2 ½ : GPRS, EDGE (8PSK), HSCSD
 Generation 3: UMTS, HSDPA  HSPA,
 In ITA since 2004
 Generation 4: LTE (2011/2012?)

Giuseppe Bianchi
 GSM essential components

To fixed network OMC

(PSTN, ISDN, PDN)
GMSC
EIR AUC HLR VLR
MSC

BSC
BTS MS Mobile Station
BTS BTS BTS Base Transceiver Station
BSC Base Station Controller
BTS BSC MSC Mobile Switching Center
GMSC Gateway MSC
OMC Operation and Maintenance Center
BTS
MS EIR Equipment Identity Register
AUC Authentication Center
HLR Home Location Register
VLR Visitor Location Register
Giuseppe Bianchi
 GSM system hierarchy
MSC MSC region
LOCATION
BSC
AREA MSC: Mobile Switching Center
LA: Location Area
BSC: Base Station Controller
BTS BTS: Base Transceiver Station

Hierarchy: MSC region  n x Location Areas  m x BSC  k x BTS

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Mobile Station (MS)
 Key fact:
 GSM separates user mobility from equipment mobility, by defining
two distinct components
 Mobile Equipment
The cellular telephone itself (or the vehicular telephone)
 Address / identifier:
IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity)
 Control: Equipment Identity Register (EIR):
White list, black list, gray list
Stolen terminals, malfunctioning terminale
 Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
Fixed installed chip (plug-in SIM) or exchangeable card (SIM
card)
 Addresses / identifiers:
IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity)
MSISDN (Mobile Subscriber ISDN number – the phone number)

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Base Station Sub-System
Um - Radio
Interface
BSS OSS
BTS

BTS BSC

A
BTS A-bis Interface
Interface

Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

Transmitter and receiver devices, voice coding & decoding, rate adaptation for data
Provides signaling channels on the radio interface
Limited signal and protocol processing (error protection coding, link layer LAPDm)
Base Station Controller (BSC)
performs most important radio interface management functions:
Radio channels allocation and deallocation; handover management; …
Giuseppe Bianchi
 Base Transceiver Station - BTS
Um Interface
(to MS)

Abis Interface (to BSC)

Output HF

Transmission
filter Transmitter

Slow freq.
TRX

Hopping

System
Digital
Signal
Input HF Processing
Filter Receiver

Operation and Maintenance Functionality/clock distribution

TRX radio interface functions:

- GMSK modulation-demodulation
- channel coding In essence, BTS is
- encryption/decryption
- burst formatting, interleaving a complex modem!
- signal strength measurements
- interference measurements

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Base Station Controller - BSC

DB contains
BTS-1 DB - state information for all BSS
- BTS software
BTS-2
X From/to MSC
FUNCTIONS:
switch  switch calls from MSC to
matrix correct BTS
 and conversely
BTS-K  Protocol and coding conversion
 for traffic (voice) & signaling
(GSM-specific to ISDN-
specific)
1 BSC may control  Manage MS mobility
up to 40 BTS  Enforce power control

Giuseppe Bianchi
Transcoding and Rate Adaptation


BTS:
-collects speech traffic
-Deciphers and removes error protection
-Result:
-13 kbps air-interface GSM speech-coded signal Transcoding and
MSC: Rate Adaptation
-A modified ISDN switch Unit (TRAU)
-Needs to receive ISDN-coded speech needed!
-64 kbps PCM format (A-law)

Rationale: re-use existing ISDN switches & protocols

Giuseppe Bianchi
 TRAU possible placements

13 kbit/s 64 kbit/s 64 kbit/s

On BTS MSC
BTS TRAU BSC

13 kbit/s 64 kbit/s
On BSC 16 kbit/s
BTS BSC TRAU MSC

64 kbit/s
13 kbit/s (4x16 sub-mux)
On MSC 16 kbit/s
BTS BSC TRAU MSC

Why 16 kbps instead of 13? Inband signalling needed for BTS control of TRAU
(TRAU needs to receive synchro & decoding information from BTS)
Giuseppe Bianchi
 Network Switching Sub-System
 Elements:
 Mobile Switching Center (MSC) / Gateway MSC (GMSC)
 Enhanced telephone switching centers (digital, ISDN)
 With support for user mobility, registration, handover
 Home Location Register (HLR ) / Authentication Center (AuC)
 Visitor Location Register (VLR)
 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
 Functions:
 Call control
 User management
 Inter-component communication
 Via SS7 signalling network with suitable extensions
(e.g. MAP – Mobile Application Part)

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Location

LA-1 LA-2 LA-3

MSC VLR
LA-4 … LA-n

 1 MSC
 1 VLR
 Several Location Areas

Giuseppe Bianchi
Location Registration (Update)
(very) basic idea

3
MSC VLR HLR

BSC 1) MS switches ON;

detects cell through BCCH carrier;
BTS Obtain Location Area Identifier (LAI)
2
BTS from BCCH

1 BTS 2) Register MS ID (IMSI) into local VLR;

Authenticate;
MS receive TMSI for local paging purposes
3) Update pointer at HLR, which now
knows which LAI/VLR the user
is located

Giuseppe Bianchi
Location Registration - details
MS BSS/MSC VLR HLR AUC
Loc. Upd. Request
Update Loc. Area
IMSI, LAI Auth. Param. Req. Auth. Info. Req.
IMSI, LAI
IMSI IMSI
Auth. Info Auth. Info
(Auth. Parameters) (Auth. Parameters)

authentication
Update Location
Start Ciphering IMSI, MSRN
Kc Insert Subscrib. Data
Activate Forward new TMSI IMSI, additional data
ciphering TMSI Insert Subscrib. Data
ACK
Locat. Upd. Accept
Locat. Upd. Accept
IMSI

TMSI Realloc Cmd

Locat. Upd. Accept
TMSI Realloc ACK
TMSI ACK
Giuseppe Bianchi
 Changing MSC/VLR

HLR
VLR MSC Public
Publicswitched
switched
telephone
telephonenetwork
network
PSTN
PSTN

VLR MSC

Base
Station

Base
Station

An MS always has a dedicated entry in the HLR

Plus one entry in JUST 1 VLR
(related to the MSC the user is connected to)
Giuseppe Bianchi
Location Update: different VLR
MS BSS/MSC VLR-new HLR VLR-old
Loc. Upd. Request
Update Loc. Area
TMSI(+ old LAI), LAI
TMSI(+ old LAI), LAI
determine
VLR-old
From old LAI Send parameters (TMSI, old LAI)

IMSI response (IMSI,RAND,SRES,Kc)

authentication
Update Location
Cancel Location
IMSI, MSRN
Generate IMSI
New TMSI Cancel Locat. ACK
Start Ciphering
Activate Kc Insert Subscrib. Data
ciphering Forward new TMSI IMSI, additional data
Ins. subs. data ACK
Locat. Upd. Accept
… …
IMSI

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Call switching Needed, as fixed network
switches are not mobile
Gateway MSC – GMSC capable!!

X X GMSC task: query HLR for

current MS location

(if fixed network switches

X X X were able to query HLR,
direct connection with
local MSC would be available)
GMSC
MSC MSC
MSC HLR

PLMN
Public Land
Mobile Network

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Notation
A call involves two “Parties”
Calling Party (caller)
user generating the call
Called Party (callee)
user receiving the call
Mobile Originating Call (MOC)
Call originated by an MS
Mobile Terminating Call (MTC)
Call directed to an MS

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Call establishment basics
Mobile Terminated Call Mobile Originated Call
Fixed Fixed
MS MSC party MS MSC party
setup
setup setup
setup Call proceeding
Call confirmed alerting
alerting
alerting
alerting Connect
Connect
connect
Connect Ack
connect

DATA DATA

In ISDN ISUP: - setup = IAM (Initial Address Message);

- Alerting = ACM (Address Complete Message);
- Connect = ANS (Answer)

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Call establishment steps
MS Mobile network MS Mobile network
Terminated Call Originated Call
Paging request
Channel request Channel request
Immediate Assignment Immediate Assignment
Paging Response Service Request
Authentication Request Authentication Request
Authentication Response Authentication Response
Ciphering mode command Ciphering mode command
Ciphering Mode Complete Ciphering Mode Complete
Setup Setup
Call Confirmed Call proceeding
Assignment Command Assignment Command
Assignment Complete Assignment Complete
Alerting Alerting
Connect Connect
Connect Acknowledge Connect Acknowledge

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Routing an MTC

ISDN

N
SD
SI
M
1:
PLMN
GMSC 2:
M
SI

N
MSCC SR 3: SD
M N
M
SR
4:

N
5: MSRN
VLRB MSCB HLR
6: TMSI MSCA
7:
pa
gi
ng

Giuseppe Bianchi
Routing calls to Roaming MS
ISDN International
MSC
Switching
(UK) Center PLMN 2
(UK)

International
Switching
ISDN Center
(ita)
Transit
Exchange
GMSC 1 PLMN 1
(ITA)
Local MSISDN MSRN MSC
Exchange +39.335.1234567 +44.NDC.8877665

HLR
335.1234567

Giuseppe Bianchi
Call to MSISDN
+39.335.3043125 “tromboning”

MSC
ISC
(UK) PLMN 2
(UK)

Call to MSISDN
+39.335.1234567

Is the PRICE (!)

ISC PLMN 1 to pay for
(ITA)
GMSC 1 (ITA) simple routing
and billing
MSISDN MSRN MSC
+39.335.1234567 +44.NDC.9876543

HLR

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Number portability
 Subscriber may switch operator without
changing his number
 First implemented in fixed network
 may 2002: extended to mobile networks
 Essential for fair competition among
network operators
 UK 2002 survey: 42% of corporate subscribers were willing
to change mobile operator; but 96% were, if number could be
ported
 Resistence from leading operators
 Number portability helps newer operators to compete with
traditional ones

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Notation

Donor switch
The switch corresponding to a “ported” telephone
number
Recipient switch
The switch to which the ported number is attached

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Technical solutions
a) call forwarding
Originating network Donor network

switch switch

switch
Recipient network
Originating switch sets-up trunk to donor switch
Donor switch sets-up trunk to recipient switch
Simplest solution, as call forwarding is a feature available in virtually all switches
But extremely inefficient routing and trunking resource consumption!
Giuseppe Bianchi
 Technical solutions
b) query on release
Originating network Donor network
SS7 ISUP IAM
switch switch
SS7 ISUP REL

Number
Portability switch
DataBase
Recipient network

Donor switch “blocks” incoming call with a release message (REL)

REL carries a QoR cause value, stating that called party number is ported
Originating switch then queries Number Portability database

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Technical solutions
c) all-call query
Originating network Donor network

switch switch

Number
Portability switch
DataBase
Recipient network

Originating switch queries Number Portability database for every call!!

- best solution if majority of numbers are ported (no interaction with donor)
- but very high DB load, as EVERY number must be looked-up!

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Mobile Number Portability
 Same ideas as fixed number portability
 The donor switch is the GMSC of the donor network
 Donor GMSC Call forwarding (if more efficient
fixed number portability not supported)
 While porting number, may also get MSRN!

Recipient network

MSC GMSC HLR Note: If path must cross GMSC:

Use Intermediate Routing Number
MSRN IRN MSRN
(or IRN)
Incoming call
Signaling relay
GMSC function HLR
Donor network
Clearly, still suffers of tromboning!
Giuseppe Bianchi
 Mobile Number Portability
(with all call query approach)

Recipient network
Query MSRN
MSC GMSC Return MSRN HLR

IRN

Incoming call
Query IRN Number
switch Return IRN Portability
DataBase

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Mobile Number Portability
improved – (with all call query approach)

Recipient network

MSC GMSC HLR

MSRN
Signaling relay
function
Incoming call
Query MSRN Number
switch Return MSRN Portability
DataBase

Giuseppe Bianchi
Wireless Cellular Networks
(basics)

Part 4 – GSM radio interface

Giuseppe Bianchi
 GSM Radio Spectrum
Frequency [MHz]
 2 x 25 Mhz band
960  Duplex spacing: 45 MHz
 124 carriers x band
DOWNLINK
 200 KHz channels
BS  MS
 Suggested use: only 122
Use top & bottom as additional guard
935
 8 TDMA slots x carrier
 full rate calls – 13 Kbps
 If half-rate used, 16 calls at 6.5 kbps
915
890.4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
UPLINK
MS  BS
Fuplink  n    890.2  0.2 n  1  MHz
890.2

890 “guard band”

Fdwlink  n    935.2  0.2 n  1  MHz
Giuseppe Bianchi
 Adjacent channels
(due to GMSK)

60dB 35dB

Specification: 9dB
In practice, due to power control and shadowing, adjacent channels
Cannot be used within the same cell…
Giuseppe Bianchi
 Physical channel
 200 KHz bandwidth + GMSK modulation
 1625/6 kbps gross channel rate (270.8333 kbps)
 1 time slot = 625/4 bits
 156.25 bits
 15/26 ms = 576.9 s

time time
slot slot
0 7 time

577 s

1 frame = 60/13 ms = 4.615 ms

26 frames = 120 ms (this is the key number)

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Hybrid FDMA-TDMA
physical channel = (time slot, frequency)
frequency Total n. of channels: 992

200 KHz
200 KHz
200 KHz
200 KHz
200 KHz
200 KHz slot
200 KHz
200 KHz
200 KHz
577us 577us 577us 577us 577us 577us 577us 577us
time
Giuseppe Bianchi
 Slow Frequency hopping
(optional procedure within individual cell)
f7
f6
f5
f4
f3
f2
f1
Hopping sequence (example):
…  f1  f2  f5  f6  f3  f7  f4  f1…

Slow = on a per-frame basis

- 1 hop per frame (4.615 ms) = 217 hops/second
Physical motivation:
- combat frequency-selective fading
- combat Co-Channel Interference
next slot may not interferere with adjacent cell slot (different hopping sequence)
- improvements: acceptable quality with 9 dB SNR versus 11 dB
Giuseppe Bianchi
 Duplexing
- MS uses SAME slot number on uplink and downlink

- Uplink and downlink carriers always have a 45 MHz separation

-I.e. if uplink carrier is 894.2  downlink is 919.2

-3 slot delay shift!!

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 DOWNLINK

UPLINK 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

MS: no need to transmit and receive in the same time

on two different frequencies!

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Structure of a TDMA slot
Normal burst
Training
TB DATA S S Data TB GP
sequence
3 57 1 26 1 57 3 8.25

148 bit burst

156.25 bit (15/26 ms = 0.577 ms)

 Symmetric structure
 DATA: 2 x 57 data bits
 114 data bits per burst
 “gross” bits (error-protected; channel coded)
 “gross” rate: 24 traffic burst every 26 frames (120 ms)
22.8 kbps gross rate
13 kbps net rate!
 S: 2 x 1 stealing bit
 Also called stealing flags, toggle bits
 Needed to grab slot for FACCH (other signalling possible)

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Guard Period rationale
BTS
d

 Assume the following

synchro mechanism:
 BTS transmits at time 0 BTS downlink tx 1 2 3 4
 MS receives at time d/c
 MS transmits at time 3+d/c MS downlink rx 1 2 3 4
 BTS receives at time 3+ 2d/c MS uplink rx 1

 Offset depending on d! BTS uplink rx 1

1
Expected RX time!
Giuseppe Bianchi
 Guard period sizing
dwlink slot 1 … dwlink slot 4

dwlink slot 1 … dwlink slot 4

MS time BTS time

… uplink slot 1

… uplink slot 1

Maximum cell radius:

GTbits 2d c  GTbits 300000  8.25

  d   4.5Km
Crate c 2Crate 2  270833
Is there something wrong? (GSM says that cells go up to 35 km)
Giuseppe Bianchi
 Frame synchronization
TA (transmitted in the SACCH)
BTS

 Timing Advance (TA)

 Parameter periodically transmitted by dwlink slot 4
BTS during MS activity
 6 bits = 0-63
dwlink slot 4
 Meaning: anticipate transmission of
TA bits TA
BTS time MS time
 TA=0: no advance uplink slot 1
 I.e. transmit after 468.75 bits
after downlink slot
 TA=63: uplink slot 1
 Transmit after 405.75 bits time uplink slot 1
TA avoids collision!
Giuseppe Bianchi
 Timing Advance analysis
 Downlink propagation delay:
 d/c
 Uplink propagation delay:
 d/c
 Uplink delay with TA:
 d/c-TA
 Perfect resynchronization occurs when
 TA = 2d/c
 Maximum cell size for perfect resync:

TA 31.5  bits
d c   300000  km / s   34.89  km
2 270833  bits / s 
8.25 bits Guard time additionally available for imperfect sync (+/- error)
Giuseppe Bianchi
And when the user is not connected?
But wants to connect…

Solution: USE A DIFFERENT BURST FORMAT

Access Burst: much longer Guard Period available
drawback: much less space for useful information

Access burst
Training
TB Data TB GP
sequence
8 41 36 3 68.25

88 bit burst
156.25 bit (0.577 ms)

No collision with subsequent slot for distances up to 37.8 km

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Logical vs Physical channels

Logical channels
(traffic channels, signalling (=control) channels)

Physical channels
(FDMA/TDMA)

 Physical channels
 Time slots @ given frequencies
 Issues: modulation, slot synchronization, multiple access techniques,
duplexing, frequency hopping, etc
 Logical channels
 Built on top of phy channels
 Issue: which information is exchanged between MS and BSS

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Logical – physical mapping
Physical Channel: data rate r, time slot i

frequency

Logical Channel Mapping:

Different channels may share a same physical channel

frequency
Frame 8 Frame 9 Frame 10 Frame 11 Frame 12
Logical channel A: data rate r/3, time slot i, frame 3k
Logical channel B: data rate 2r/3, time slot i, frame 3k+1, 3k+2

Giuseppe Bianchi
 GSM logical channels

Traffic channel (TCH) TCH/F TCH full rate MSBSS

TCH/H TCH half Rate MSBSS
Broadcast channel BCCH Broadcast control BSSMS
(same information to all MS in a cell) FCCH Frequency Correction BSSMS
SCH Synchronization BSSMS
Common Control channel (CCCH) RACH Random Access MSBSS
(point to multipoint channels) AGCH Access Grant BSSMS
(used for access management) PCH Paging BSSMS
Dedicated Control channel (DCCH) SDCCH Stand-alone Dedicated MSBSS
control
(point-to-point signalling channels) SACCH Slow associated control MSBSS
(dedicated to a specific MS) FACCH Fast associated control MSBSS
Additional logical channels available for special purposes
(SMS, group calls, …)
Giuseppe Bianchi
 Traffic channels (TCH/F)
Periodic pattern of 26 frames (120 ms = 15/26 ms/TS * 8 TS/frame* 26 frame)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

24 TCH frames over 26

Same TS in every frame 01234567012345670123456701234567

Theoretical rate: 1/8 channel rate: r=33.85 kbps

2 signalling frames: r  31.25 kbps TB DATA S Training S Data TB GP

3 57 1 Seq. (26) 1 57 3 8.25
Burst overhead (114 bits over 156.25):
148 bit burst
r 22.8 kbps 156.25 bit (0.577 ms)
Giuseppe Bianchi
Slow Associated Control Channel
 Always associated to instaurated call on TCH (TCH + SACCH = TACH)
 On the same Time Slot
 Periodic (order of ½ second) time-scale information for radio link control
TCH/F(0…7) TCH/F(0…7)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

SACCH(0…7) IDLE frame

SACCH-0 SACCH-1 SACCH-2 SACCH-3 SACCH-4 SACCH-5 SACCH-6 SACCH-7

1 SACCH burst (per TCH) every 26 frames (120 ms)

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Broadcast Channel (usual)
organization
 51 frame structure vs 26
 235.38 ms period (vs 120 ms)
 Sub-blocks with 10 frames
 Starting with Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH)
 Immediately followed by Synchronization Channel (SCH)
 Other frames (numbered from #0 to #50):
 #50 idle
 #2,3,4,5 BCCH
 Remaining: Paging (PCH) / Access Grant (AGCH) [=PAGCH]

51 frame structure - downlink

FSBBBBPPPPFSPPPPPPPPFSPPPPPPPPFSPPPPPPPPFSPPPPPPPP

10 frame sub-block

Giuseppe Bianchi
 BCCH contents
 184 bits
 Coded in 456 bits and interleafed in 4 bursts
 same coding and interleaving as SACCH
 BCCH capacity
184 bits / (51*8*15/26 ms) ~ 782 bps
 Information provided
 Details of the control channel configuration
 Parameters to be used in the cell
Random access backoff values
Maximum power an MS may access (MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCCH)
Minimum received power at MS (RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN)
Is cell allowed? (CELL_BAR_ACCESS)
Etc.
 List of carriers used in the cell
Needed if frequency hopping is applied
 List of BCCH carriers and BSIC of neighboring cells

Giuseppe Bianchi
 BCCH carrier placement
 On Downlink
 Corresponding uplink dedicated to Random Access Channel
51 frame structure - uplink
RRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR

 On one frequency per cell (beacon)

 MUST BE on Time Slot #0
 Other Time slots may be used by TCH
Provided that:
• All empty slots are filled with DUMMY bursts
• Downlink power control must be disabled

Giuseppe Bianchi
Fast Associated Control Channel
 FACCH: urgent signalling
 Used when several signalling information needs to be transmitted
Call setup
Handover
 FACCH block = 184
 456 after coding
 Interleaved as voice block
 Spreaded on 8 bursts
 Replaces a voice block (20 ms) on the TCH
 Via stealing bits
 Voice block(s) discarded
 Maximum FACCH bit rate
 184*6/120 [bits/ms] = 9.2 kbps (vs 383 bps of SACCH!)

Giuseppe Bianchi
 FACCH insertion in TCH

Via Stealing bits

- upper bit = odd bits stolen
- lower bit = even bits stolen
- both bits = all burst stolen

Figure: shows example of 2 FACCH blocks

stealing a TCH (note begin and end behavior
due to interleaving)

time
Giuseppe Bianchi
 Why paging
 Channel assignment:
only upon explicit request from MS
 Paging
needed to “wake-up” MS from IDLE state when incoming call
arrives to MS
 MS accesses on RACH to ask for a channel
Generally SDCCH (but immediate TCH assignment is possible)
1) paging

MS 2) Random access BSS/MSC

3) Channel assignment

Paging channel: PCH CCCH

PAGCH
Access Grant Channel: AGCH Common Control
Random Access Channel: RACH CHannel
Giuseppe Bianchi
 Paging
 Paging message generated by MSC
 Which receives incoming call
 Transferred to subset of BSC
 Paging limited to user’s location area
 Paging message contains:
List of cells where paging should be performed
Identity of paged user (IMSI or TMSI)
 Paging message coded in 4 consecutive
bursts over the air interface
 Same coding/interleaving structure of SACCH (184456 bits)
 Paging for more MSs may be joined in one
unique paging message

Giuseppe Bianchi
An example procedure involving signalling

Setup for an incoming call (call

arriving from fixed network part -
MS responds to a call)

Steps:
- paging for MS
- MS responds on RACH
- MS granted an SDCCH
- authentication & ciphering on SDCCH
- MS granted a TS (TCH/FACCH)
- connection completed on FACCH
- Data transmitted on TCH

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Radio Resource allocation
three standardized solutions

 Non-Off Air Call Set-Up (Non-OACSU)

 Normally used (previous description)
 Off Air Call Set-Up (OACSU)
 TCH assigned only when the called party actually responds!
Best utilization of radio resource (avoids allocation if callee not available)
Call drop if no TCH is available at this point
 Very Early Assignment (VEA)
 Immediate assignment of TCH
Fastest signalling process
Waste of resources

VEA RACH TCH (FACCH) TCH (DATA)

Non-OACSU RACH SDCCH TCH (FACCH) TCH (DATA)
OACSU RACH SDCCH TCH (DATA)

Connection established Callee responds

Giuseppe Bianchi
 handover
 Procedure in which an MS releases a connection with
a BTS, and establishes a connection with a new BTS,
while ensuring that the ongoing call is maintained
 The MS remains in dedicated state (unlike cell reselection, where MS is in idle
state)
 Handoff: synonymous of handover
 Needs two mechanisms
 Handover preparation: detection of cell-border crossing
Based on radio link quality measurements
 Handover execution: setup of a new channel in a cell, and tear-down of a
previous channel
 Improved handover mechanisms:
 Seamless handover: when active call performance is not impaired
Not possible in GSM: for about 100-200ms, communication is interrupted
 Soft Handover: when two channels are simultaneously set-up (old and new)
Not possible in GSM; possible in UMTS

Giuseppe Bianchi
Hard, Seamless, Soft handover
before during after
MSC MSC MSC
Hard
handover BSS 1 BSS 2 BSS 1 BSS 2 BSS 1 BSS 2
(GSM) f1 f1 f2
MS MS MS

MSC MSC MSC

Seamless
BSS 1 BSS 2 BSS 1 BSS 2 BSS 1 BSS 2
(DECT)
f1 f1 f2 f2
MS MS MS

MSC MSC MSC

Soft
handover BSS 1 BSS 2 BSS 1 BSS 2 BSS 1 BSS 2
(UMTS) f1 f1 f1 f1 f1
MS MS MS

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Handover classification
Classification by motivation Classification by typology
 Rescue handover  Internal handover
(mandatory handover)  Intra-BTS
 Driven by radio channel quality New radio channel in the same
degradation cell
 Confinement handover Not termed as “handover” but
(network-directed handover) as“subsequent assignment”
 Target: minimize radio interference  Inter-BTS (Intra-BSC)
 Assign new channel when old Under control of same BSC
channel results critical for total  External handover
interference
 Inter-BSC (Intra-MSC)
 Traffic handover
(network-directed handover) Change reference BSC; may
imply a location area update
 Driven by traffic congestion
conditions  Inter-MSC
Most complex: need to change
 Also called load-balancing MSC

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Types of handover
Anchor MSC: Relay MSC:
the MSC that first the MSC that currently
managed the current call manages the call
Switching Switching
point for point for
all inter-MSC A-MSC R-MSC inter-BSC
handover handover
A
Switching
point for
internal BSC BSC BSC
handover
A-bis

BTS BTS BTS BTS

radio
interface

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Handover taxonomy
 BCHO: Base station Controlled Handover
 Handover detection: BS
 Handover Execution: BS
 MCHO: Mobile Controlled Handover
 Handover detection: MS
 Handover Execution: MS
 MAHO: Mobile Assisted Handover
 Handover detection: MS
 Handover Execution: BS

 GSM: somehow a BCHO with a flavor of MAHO

 Handover decision always taken by BSC
 Based on measures taken at both BTS and MS
 New channel selection decision taken at BSC or R-MSC or A-MSC
(depending on handover type) based on traffic consideration

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Handover preparation RX signal
level
From
(dBm)
To
(dBm)
 Measurements performed at BTS RXLEV_0 - -110
 Up-link signal level received from MS lower than threshold RXLEV_1 -110 -109

RXLEV_UL < L_RXLEV_UL_H RXLEV_2 -109 -108

 Up-link signal quality (BER) received from MS RXLEV_3 -108 -107

… … …
RXQUAL_UL < L_RXQUAL_UL_H
… … …
 Distance between MS and BTS RXLEV_62 -49 -48
adaptive timing advance parameter > MAX_MS_RANGE RXLEV_63 -48 -
 Interference level in unallocated time slots.
Bit error From To
 Measurements performed at MS. Ratio (%) (%)
 Down-link signal level received from serving cell RXQUAL_0 - 0.2
RXLEV_DL < L_RXLEV_DL_H RXQUAL_1 0.2 0.4

 Down-link signal quality (BER) received from serving cell RXQUAL_2 0.4 0.8

RXQUAL_DL < L_RXQUAL_DL_H RXQUAL_3 0.8 1.6

 Down-link signal level received from n-th neighbor cell RXQUAL_4 1.6 3.2
RXQUAL_5 3.2 6.4
RXLEV_NCELL(n) > RXLEV_MIN(n)
RXQUAL_6 6.4 12.8
RXQUAL_7 12.8 -
Giuseppe Bianchi
 Handover preparation –
additional metrics
 Transmission power
 Maximum MS transmission power
RXLEV RXLEV
 Maximum serving BTS transmission power (cell A) Handover (cell B)
 Maximum neighboring BTSs transmission
power
 congestion status
 of serving BTS
 of neighboring BTSs
 provided they can support the MS. RXLEV RXLEV
 Handover Margin (cell A)
Handover
(cell B)
 To avoid ping-pong handover effect
 5-10 dB in normal operation; up to 30dB in
urban operation (to fight shadowing)

HANDOVER ALGORITHM: operator-dependent!

GSM standard SUGGESTS a simple reference
algorithm, but implementation left to operator hysteresis

Giuseppe Bianchi
handover procedure skeleton
1) Handover request goes up to switching point

MSC
2) Switching point prepares new path on fixed net

3) Switching point sends HO command to MS

2
1
5
4) MS accesses new channel
BSC
BSC
5) Old channel/path torn down
3
4
BTS
BTS

Giuseppe Bianchi
 Inter-MSC handover
 More complex, as an ISDN circuit must be set
between MSCs
 We’ll not enter into details (just the basic ideas)
 Two cases

First MSC change Second MSC change

(basic handover) (subsequent handover)

MSC-A MSC-R1 MSC-A X MSC-R1 MSC-R2

X Note the role of the X

Anchor MSC!

Giuseppe Bianchi