CELLULAR

REPRODUCTION
AND
GENETICS
 Genetics
• is the study of heredity and variation. It aims
to understand how traits can be passed on to
the next generation and how variation arises.
 DNA
• All living things contain what we call the
genetic material that serves as the set of
instructions that direct the activities and
functions of the cells.
• These genetic materials, also known as
the deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA, are
passed on from one generation to the next
to ensure the continuity of life.
 Chromosome
• Chromosomes are thread-like structures in
which DNA is tightly packaged within the
nucleus.
• DNA is coiled around proteins called
histones, which provide the structural
support.
• Chromosomes help ensure that DNA is
replicated and distributed appropriately
during cell division.
 Chromosome
• In eukaryotic cells (cells with organelles),
the DNA are bound with proteins and are
organized as beads on strings to form
chromosomes.
 INTERPHASE
• refers to the period that follows one cell
division and precedes another.
• During this stage, the cell does not divide;
it merely grows.
• The chromosome doubles or replicates
itself because the DNA molecule
contained in the chromosome produces an
exact copy of itself.
 INTERPHASE

• consists of:
–G1 phase
–S phase, and
–G2 phase.
 G1 PHASE
• This is the stage from the formation of a
new cell until it begins to replicate its
DNA, during which time the cell grows
initially.
• This stage is characterized by protein and
ribonucleic acid (RNA) synthesis.
• RNA, which is synthesized based on the
DNA, is then used to synthesize proteins.
 S PHASE
• The middle stage of interphase.
• Also called the synthesis stage.
• is the period of DNA synthesis or
replication.
• The chromosomes are duplicated in
preparation for the next cell division.
 G2 PHASE
• Also known as the second gap period, falls
between the S period and the next cell division
or M (mitosis or meiosis) phase.
• G2 represents a period of rapid cell growth to
prepare for cell division.
• The nuclear membrane starts to dissolve.
• post DNA replication phase
• shortest of the three phases of interphase
• lasts for about four hours to complete
 CELL DIVISION
• Alternating with the interphase is the
cell division phase.
• In eukaryotic cells, there are two
types of cell division:
– Mitosis
– Meiosis
 MITOSIS
• This type of cell division produces two
identical cells with the same number of
chromosomes.
• is divided into four stages:
– Prophase
– Metaphase
– Anaphase
– Telophase
 PROPHASE
• The nuclear membrane and
nucleoli may still be present.
• The chromosomes are
thicker and shorter because
of repeated coiling.
• At this stage, each
chromosome is made up of
two identical sister
chromatids as a
consequence of replication
of DNA during the S phase.
 PROPHASE
• The two chromatids
produced from one
chromosome are still
attached at one point,
called the centromere.
• The centromere may
divide the chromosome into
the shorter arms, also
called the p arms (‘p’ stands
for petite in French) and the
longer q arms.
 METAPHASE
• The nuclear membrane
has disappeared while
the highly coiled
chromosomes align at
the metaphase plate, an
imaginary plane
equidistant between the
cell’s two poles.
• Spindle fibers are also
formed.
 METAPHASE
• Each fiber binds to a protein called the
kinetochore at the centromere of each
sister chromatid of the chromosome.
 ANAPHASE
• The paired centromeres of
each chromosome separate
towards the opposite poles of
the cells as they are pulled by
the spindle fibers through their
kinetochores.
• This liberates the sister
chromatids.
• Each chromatid is now
regarded as a full-fledged
chromosome and is only
made up of one sister
chromatid.
 TELOPHASE
• The chromosomes are now at the opposite
poles of the spindle.
• They start to uncoil and become indistinct
under the light microscope.
• A new nuclear membrane forms around them
while the spindle fibers disappear.
 TELOPHASE
• There is also cytokinesis or the division of the
cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells
immediately after mitosis.
MEIOSIS
 MEIOSIS
• from a Greek word which means “to make
smaller.”
• Meiosis reduces the chromosome number
in half.
• It takes place in plants and animals
whenever gametes, or sex cells, are
formed through the process called
gametogenesis.
 MEIOSIS
• Meiosis is a special type of cell division where
the cell undergoes two rounds of cell
division to produce four daughter cells.
• Each with half the chromosome number as
the original parent cell and with a unique set
of genetic material as a result of exchange of
chromosome segments during the process of
crossing over.
 MEIOSIS I
• The first round of meiotic division,
also known as meiosis I, consists of
four stages:
– Prophase I
– Metaphase I
– Anaphase I
– Telophase I
MEIOSIS I
 STAGE A:
Prophase I
 Meiosis starts with this stage and includes
the following sub-stages:
STAGE A:
STAGE A:
MEIOSIS
 STAGE A:
Prophase I
Meiosis starts with this stage and includes
the following sub-stages:
Leptotene. Each chromosome is made up of two
long threads of sister chromatids as a result of
replication during the S phase of the cell cycle.
 STAGE A:
Prophase I
Meiosis starts with this stage and includes
the following sub-stages:
Zygotene. The chromosomes begin to pair off.
Pairs of chromosomes are called homologous
chromosomes, and this pairing process is exact.
 STAGE A:
Prophase I
 Meiosis starts with this stage and includes the following
sub-stages:
 Pachytene. The chromosomes contract due to repeated coiling.
 Crossing over takes place during this stage where a segment of
a sister chromatid of one chromosome is exchanged with the
same segment of the sister chromatid of the homologous
chromosome through the formation of a cross-linkage of the
segments called a chiasma.
 After crossing over, the sister chromatids of each chromosome
may no longer be identical with each other based on the genetic
material they contain.
MEIOSIS
 STAGE A:
Prophase I
 Meiosis starts with this stage and
includes the following sub-stages:
Diplotene. The chromosomes begin to
uncoil.
 STAGE A:
Prophase I
 Meiosis starts with this
stage and includes the
following sub-stages:
 Diakinesis. The paired
chromosomes disperse
in the nucleus.
 termination of the
condensing of the
chromosomes.
STAGE B:
 STAGE C:
Anaphase I
 Spindle fibers form and attach to the centromeres of
the chromosomes.
 The homologous chromosomes separate from each
other completely and start their movement toward
the poles of the cells as they are pulled by the
spindle fibers.
 As the centromere of each chromosome does not
divide, the sister chromatids remain together.
STAGE C:
 STAGE D:
Telophase I.
• This is the stage when the chromosomes reach their
respective poles.
• Cytokinesis follows and two daughter cells are formed.
• Each cell now has only half the chromosome number
because only one chromosome from each pair goes to
the daughter cell.
• This is called the haploid condition, in contrast to the
diploid condition at the beginning of meiosis I where
each chromosome pair is intact.
• Telophase I is followed by interphase II.
STAGE D:
 Note that each chromosome still has two sister
chromatids; it is therefore
necessary for the cells to undergo another round of
division.
 MEIOSIS II
consists of the following stages:

 Prophase II,
 Metaphase II
 Anaphase II
 Telophase II

mitotic in nature - these stages are identical with the mitotic

stages.
The results are four cells, two from each daughter cell from
meiosis I, with one half the diploid chromosome number and
with only one sister chromatid for each chromosome.
MEIOSIS II
Role of Meiosis in
Gametogenesis
Gametes such as eggs and sperms
unite during fertilization, forming a
diploid zygote.
• The zygote has one set of
chromosomes from the
male parent and another
set from the female parent.
• In humans, both father and
mother contribute 23
chromosomes each
through their gametes.
• Thus, the zygote has 46
chromosomes.
• The zygote divides many
times. This produces a
new diploid multicellular
organism.
SPERM CELL
 SPERM CELL
• are produced in the testes of male
animals.
• Meiosis produces four cells which are
very small but of similar size.
• These cells become spermatozoa
(singular form is spermatozoon) or
sperms.
SPERM CELL
• The nucleus is found in the
head of the sperm.
• mitochondria are found at
the midpiece that connects
the head to the tail.
• These mitochondria provide
the energy for the
movement of the sperm’s
tail.
EGG CELL
 EGG CELL
• In female animals, egg cells are produced in
the ovary.
• When a cell in the ovary undergoes meiosis,
new cells which differ in size are produced.
 EGG CELL
• After meiosis I, two cells – one big and
one small – are produced.
• Meiosis II produces one big and one small
cell from the first big cell.
• The small cell produced from meiosis I
may or may not divide.
• If it does, two small cells are produced.
• The big cell becomes the egg cell; the
small cells disintegrate.
 EGG CELL
• The egg cell contains a lot of stored
food which is used by the growing
embryo at the start of its
development.
• In fertilization, the tiny sperm cell only
contributes its genetic material found
in the head.
EGG CELL
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 COOPERATE

LCR
LISTEN RESPECT
Activity Proper: “WHICH IS WHICH?”

 Organize 5 groups among yourselves

 Get the activity Sheets and materials. First read the
procedure carefully. If there are points that you don’t
understand, ask help or clarify from your teacher.
 Follow the directions in the activity sheet, with your group
mates.
 Be aware of the time element of this activity. Practice the
advocacy of the WATCH, time consciousness and honesty in
doing the activity.
 Using your Mathematic Skills, apply it in counting the
number of daughter cells produced in the different types of
Cell Division. (Numeracy Skills)
 WHAT’S THE CONNECTION?
Directions: Arrange the stages of Cell Division and label each
stages.
Procedure:
• Organize 5 groups among yourselves.
• Open the envelope and sequence the stages of Cell Division.
• Label each stages with the help of given prefixes for each
stage.
• Inter – interphase means “between”
• Pro – prophase means “before”
• Meta – metaphase means ” along with or middle”
• Ana – anaphase means “away or apart”
• Telo – telophase means “final or two”
• Present your output to the class.
 CELL DIVISION
• Alternating with the interphase is
the cell division phase.
• In eukaryotic cells, there are two
types of cell division:
• Mitosis
• Meiosis
 MITOSIS
• This type of cell division produces two
identical cells with the same number of
chromosomes.
• is divided into four stages:
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
 PROPHASE METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE
INTERPHASE
• the the spindle has the sister The cell is nearly
• the cell grows
chromosomes captured all the chromatids done dividing, and
and makes a
start to chromosomes separate from it starts to re-
copy of its
condense. and lined them each other establish its normal
DNA.
up at the middle and are pulled structures as
• chromosome
of the cell, towards cytokinesis (division
is made up of
ready to divide. opposite ends of the cell contents)
two identical
of the cell. takes place.
sister
chromatids Produces two
identical sister
chromatids.
 MEIOSIS
• from a Greek word which means “to make
smaller.”
• Meiosis reduces the chromosome number
in half.
• It takes place in plants and animals
whenever gametes, or sex cells, are
formed through the process called
gametogenesis.
 MEIOSIS
• Meiosis is a special type of cell division where
the cell undergoes two rounds of cell
division to produce four daughter cells.
• Each with half the chromosome number as
the original parent cell and with a unique set
of genetic material as a result of exchange of
chromosome segments during the process of
crossing over.
 MEIOSIS I
• The first round of meiotic division,
also known as meiosis I, consists of
four stages:
– Prophase I
– Metaphase I
– Anaphase I
– Telophase I
MEIOSIS I
 Prophase I
Meiosis starts with this stage and includes
the following sub-stages:
STAGE A:
MEIOSIS I
MEIOSIS
 VALUING
 In what ways does cell division useful for life?
Science and Math Problem

If a single cell undergoes

mitosis every five
minutes, how many cells
will result from this single
cell after 30 minutes?
 Why mitosis and meiosis are important?

• Mitosis and meiosis both involve cells dividing

to make new cells.
• This makes them both vital processes for the
existence of living things that reproduce
sexually.
• Meiosis makes the cells needed for sexual
reproduction to occur, and mitosis replicates
non-sex cells needed for growth and
development.
ACTIVITY
TIME!!
HOW TO PLAY MY
ROLE?
• Direction. Choose the word in the box to identify &
describe the processes during mitosis or meiosis.

Diakinesis Metaphase
Anaphase Telophase I
Pachytene Diplotene
Prophase I Zygotene

____1. The chromosomes begin to pair off.

____2. The chromosomes align at the center of the cell.
____3. The paired chromosomes disperse in the nucleus.
____4. The paired centromeres of each chromosome begin
to separate.
____5. The mother cell is now divided into two with half
number of chromosomes for each new cell.
 ASSIGNMENT
Do your research:

• What Can Happen if Meiosis Goes

Wrong?
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