The Era of Big Data: Databases, Information Systems, & Artificial Intelligence

The Era of Big Data:
Databases,
Information Systems,
& Artificial Intelligence
Chapter 8
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Chapter Topics
UNIT8A:
UNIT 8A:Files
Files&&Databases
Databases
8.1 Managing Files: Basic Concepts
8.1 Managing Files: Basic Concepts
8.2 Database Management Systems
8.2 Database Management Systems
8.3 Database Models
Using Information Technology, 11e
8.3 Database Models

8.4 Data Mining
8.4 Data Mining
UNIT8B:
UNIT 8B:Big
BigData,
Data,Information
InformationSystems,
Systems,&&Artificial
ArtificialIntelligence
Intelligence
8.5 The Evolving World of Big Data
8.5 The Evolving World of Big Data
8.6 Information Systems in Organizations: Using Databases to Help Make Decisions
8.6 Information Systems in Organizations: Using Databases to Help Make Decisions
8.7 Artificial Intelligence
8.8 Artificial Life, the Turing Test, & the Singularity
8.8 Artificial Life, the Turing Test, & the Singularity
2
UNIT 8A: Files & Databases
• Big Data is so large and complex that it cannot be processed

using conventional methods, such as ordinary database

management software.
• Some experts expect data to grow by 20 times between 2012
and 2020.
3
8.1 Managing Files

Basic Concepts
4
• A database is a logically organized collection of related data
designed and built for a specific purpose.
• Data is stored hierarchically for easier storage and retrieval.
• File (table): collection of related records

• Records (row): collections of related fields
• Field (column): unit of data containing 1 or more characters
• Character [Byte]: a letter number or special character made of bits
• Bit: 0 or 1
5
Data Storage
Hierarchy
6
A key field (primary key) is a field (or fields) in a record that holds
unique data that identifies that record from all the other records in
the table and in the database.
• Often an identifying number, such as social security number or a student

ID number.
• Keys are used to sort records in different ways.
• Primary keys must be unique make records distinguishable from one
another.
• Foreign keys appear in other tables and usually refer to primary keys in
particular tables; they are used to relate one table to another (to cross-
reference data).
7
8.2 Database Management
Systems
8
Database Management System (DBMS): software that enables users to
store, modify, and extract information from a database
• DBMS benefits:
• Reduced data redundancy (redundant data is stored in multiple places, which
causes problems keeping all the copies current)

• Speed—Modern DBMSs are much faster than manual data-organization
systems and faster than older computer-based database arrangements
• Improved data integrity—the data is accurate, consistent, and up to date
• Timeliness—The speed and efficiency of DBMSs generally ensure that data
can be supplied in a timely fashion—when people need it
• Ease of sharing—The data in a database belongs to and is shared, usually over
a network, by an entire organization. The data is independent of the programs
that process the data, and it is easy for nontechnical users to access it. 9
• Ease of data maintenance—DBMS offers validation checks, backup utilities, and
standard procedures for data inserting, updating, and deletion
• Forecasting capabilities—DBMSs can hold massive amounts of data that can be
manipulated, studied, and compared in order to forecast behaviors in markets and other
areas that can affect sales and marketing managers’ decisions as well as the decisions of
administrators of educational institutions, hospitals, and other organizations
• Increased security—Although various departments may share data, access to specific
information can be limited to selected users—called authorization control.
10
3 Principal Database Components
• Data Dictionary
• Repository that stores the data definitions and descriptions of the structure of the
data and the database
• DBMS Utilities
• Programs that allow you to maintain the database by creating, editing, deleting data,
records, and files
• Also include automated backup and recovery
• Report Generator
• Program for producing on-screen or printed readable documents from all or part of a
database
11
Database Administrator (DBA)
• Coordinates all related activities and needs for an organization’s
database
• Ensures the database’s:

• Recoverability
• Integrity
• Security
• Availability
• Reliability
• Performance
12
8.3 Database Models
13
A database model determines the information a database will contain and
how it will be used and how the items in the database relate to one another.
Hierarchical Database
• Fields or records are arranged in related groups resembling a family tree
with child (low-level) records subordinate to parent (high-level) records

• Root record is the parent record at the top of the database, and data is
accessed top-down, through the hierarchy
• Oldest and simplest; used in mainframes in 1970s
• Still used in some reservation systems
• Is rigid in structure and difficult to update
14
Hierarchical Database
15
Network Database: created to represent a more complex data
relationship effectively, improve database performance, and impose
a database standard.
• Similar to a hierarchical database but more flexible-- each child record

can have more than one parent record
• Used principally with mainframe computers
• Requires the database structure to be defined in advance; flexibility still
lacking
16
Network
Database
17
• Relational Database: grew out of the hierarchical and network
database models
• Relates or connects data in different files through the use of primary
keys, or common data elements

• Data stored in tables (relations, or files) of rows (tuples, or records) and
columns (attributes, or fields)
• More flexible than previous models; built with SQL
• Examples for large systems are Oracle, Informix, Sybase
• Examples for microcomputers are Paradox and Microsoft Access
• Users don’t need to know data structure to use the database
18
Relational Database
19
Relational Database (continued)
• Users employ SQL (structured query language) to create, modify, maintain, and
query the database
• Query by Example uses sample record forms to allow users to define the
qualifications for choosing records

• Some relational database allow the use of natural spoken language to make
queries
20
Object-Oriented Database
• Uses “objects,” software written in small, reusable chunks, as elements
within data files
• An object consists of:
• Data in any form, including audio, graphics, and video

• Instructions on the action to be taken with the data
• This model is a multimedia database
• Types include web (hypertext) database and
hypermedia database, which also includes links
21
Multidimensional Database
• Models data as facts, dimensions, or numerical
answers for use in the interactive analysis of large
amounts of data for decision-making purposes
• Allows users to ask questions in colloquial

language
• Use OLAP (online analytical processing) software
to provide answers to complex database queries
22
Brief Database Model Overview
Database Type Description
Hierarchical database Fields or records are arranged in a family tree, with child records subordinate to
parent or higher-level records
Network database Like a hierarchical database, but each child record can have more than one
parent record
Relational database Relates, or connects, data in different files (tables) through the use of a key, or
common data element
Object-oriented database Uses objects (software written in small, reusable chunks) as elements within
database files; multimedia
Multidimensional database Models data as facts, dimensions, or numerical measures for use in the
interactive analysis of large amounts of data
23
8.4 Data Mining
24
Data mining is the computer-assisted process of sifting through and analyzing
vast amounts of data to extract hidden patterns and meaning and to discover new
knowledge.
• Data is fed into a data warehouse through the following steps:
1. Identify and connect to data sources

2. Perform data fusion and data cleansing
3. Obtain both data and metadata (data about the data)
4. Transport data and metadata to the data warehouse
• Data warehouse is a special database of cleaned-up data and metadata.
25
Data Mining
26
Methods for searching for patterns in the data and interpreting the
results
• Regression analysis
• Develops mathematical formula to fit patterns in the data that has been extracted
• Formula is then applied to other data sets of the same type to predict future trends
• Classification analysis
• Statistical pattern-recognition process that is applied to data sets with more than just
numerical data
27
UNIT 8B: Big Data, Information Systems, & Artificial
Intelligence
Big Data aims to tap all the web data and other data that is
outside corporate databases. Big Data typically means applying
the tools of artificial intelligence to vast new sources of data
beyond that captured in standard databases. The new data
sources include web-browsing data trails, social network
communications, sensor data, and surveillance data.
28
8.5 The Evolving World of
Big Data
29
Three Implications of Big Data:
1. Big Data derives from a bundle of old & new data sources, both old
and new—web pages, sensor signals, GPS location data from smartphones,
browsing habits, genetic information, and surveillance videos. To make
sense of the oceans of data, there is advanced computer processing and

storage plus complex software taken from the evolving world of artificial
intelligence, the branch of computer science devoted to the creation of
computer systems that simulate human reasoning and sensation.
The software applies Big Data analytics -- the process of examining
large amounts of data of a variety of types to uncover hidden patterns,
unknown correlations, and other useful information. A specific kind of
analytics is web analytics, the measurement and analysis of Internet data to
understand web usage.
2. Big data could lead to a revolution in measurement: The volume and
variety of data, along with the powerful smart software, could revolutionize
how things are measured—just as the invention of the telescope opened up
the heavens and the microscope unveiled the mysteries of biological life
down to the cellular level. In business management, for example, new kinds
of measurement could replace old ideas, organizations, and ways of
thinking about the world.
3. Big data could lead to better decision making: Not only can
data-driven insights be used to make sense of incredibly complex
situations, Big Data “can help compensate for our
overconfidence in our own intuitions and can help reduce the

extent to which our desires distort our perceptions.” In short, Big
Data is a term for a process that has the potential to transform
everything.
Uses of Big Data:
• Big Data is finding major uses in medical research, marketing,
politics, and even entertainment programming, to name just a few
areas.
8.6 Information Systems in
Organizations
Using Databases to Help Make Decisions
34
An information system is a combination of people, hardware,
software, communication devices, and databases that processes data
and information for a specific purpose.
• What are the qualities of good information?

• Correct and verifiable
• Complete yet concise
• Cost effective
• Current
• Accessible
35
Most organizations have 6 departments within which information
must flow, horizontally:
• Research and development
• Production (operations)
• Marketing and sales
• Accounting and finance
• Human resources (personnel)
• Information systems (IS)
36
Besides the 6 departments, many organizations also have 3 levels of
management, where information flows vertically:
• Strategic-level management
• Top managers (CEOs, COOs, CFOs, CIOs) concerned with long-term, or
strategic, planning and decisions

• Tactical-level management
• Middle level managers who make tactical decisions to implement the strategic
goals set for the organization
• Operational-level management
• Low-level supervisors who make daily operational decisions
37
• A Newer Information Flow: Decentralized Organizations
• The pyramid management structure is flattened somewhat as employees are
given more authority to make day-to-day decisions.
• Employees increasingly linked to a central database.
• Companies use Groupware CSCW (computer-supported cooperative work)

systems to enable cooperative work by groups of people.
• Many people can work together from different locations to manage information.
38
Computer-based information systems: information systems that are a
combination of hardware, software, and telecommunications networks
that people build and use to collect, create, and distribute data.
1. Office information systems

2. Transaction processing systems
3. Management information systems
4. Decision support systems
5. Executive support systems
6. Expert systems
39
1. Office Information System (OIS)
• Also called office automation system
• Combines various technologies to reduce the manual labor required in
operating an efficient office and to increase productivity

• Used throughout all levels of an organization
• Uses, e.g., fax, voice mail, email, scheduling software, word processing,
desktop publishing
• OIS backbone = network (LAN, intranet, extranet)
40
OIS
41
2. Transaction Processing System (TPS)
• Transactions are recorded events of routine business activities, such as
bills, orders, and inventory
• TPS systems keep track of the transactions needed to conduct a business
• Features of a TPS:
• Input and output: transaction data
• For operational (low-level) managers
• Produces detail reports (specific information about routine activities)
• One TPS for each department
• Basis for management information systems (MIS) and decision support systems
(DSS)
42
3. Management Information System (MIS)
• Computer-based information system that uses data recorded by a TPS as
input to programs that produce routine reports as output
• Features
• Inputs are processed transaction data; outputs are summarized, structured reports
• Designed for tactical (mid-level) managers
• Draws from all departments
• Produces several kinds or reports: summary, exception, periodic, and demand
43
4. Decision Support System (DSS)
• Computer information system that provides a flexible tool for analysis
and helps management focus on the future
• Features
• Inputs are external data and internal data such as summarized reports and processed
transaction data; outputs are demand reports from top managers
• Assists tactical (mid-level) managers in decision making
• Produces analytic models
• Developed to support the types of decisions faced by managers in
specific industries
44
5. Executive Support System
• Easy-to-use DSS made especially for strategic (top-level) managers
to support strategic decision making
•
Uses data from internal systems and data from outside

• Allows executives to call up predefined reports
• Includes capability to browse through summarized information on all
aspects of the organization and drill down for detailed data
• Allows executives to perform “what-if” scenarios
45
Executive Support System

Executive support systems are reporting tools that allow organizations to turn their data into
useful summarized reports. These reports are generally used by executive-level managers for
quick access to reports coming from all company levels.
46
6. Expert System
• Also called knowledge-based system
• Set of interactive computer programs that help users to solve problems that
would otherwise require the assistance of a human expert

• Used by both management and nonmanagement personnel to solve specific
problems
• One of the most useful applications of artificial intelligence (AI)
47
48
Artificial intelligence is the branch of computer science concerned with
making computers behave like humans.
• Two approaches to AI are conventional AI, based on machine learning, and
computational intelligence, based on experimental and trial-and-error methods.
• Conventional AI attempts to mimic human intelligence through logic and symbol

manipulation, as well as statistics. This branch of AI is based on machine
learning, which is the development of techniques that allow a computer to
simulate learning by generating rules from raw data fed into it. Expert systems,
for example, make heavy use of this kind of AI.
• Computational intelligence relies less on formal logical systems and
more on experimental and trial-and- error methods. This branch of AI is
based on heuristics, or rules of thumb, for solving a problem, rather than
hard-and-fast formulas or algorithms.
Weak AI versus Strong AI:
• Weak AI makes the claim that computers can be programmed to
simulate human cognition and only some human cognition, to solve
particular problems or reasoning tasks that do not encompass fully
human intelligence. That is, weak AI suggests that some “thinking-like”

features can be added to computers to make them more useful tools.
• Strong AI makes the claim that computers can be made to think on a
level that is at least equal to humans and possibly even be conscious of
themselves. So far, most AI advances have been piecemeal and single
purpose, such as factory robots. However, proponents of strong AI
believe that it’s possible for computers to have the kind of wide-ranging
problem-solving ability that people have.
AI Areas include:
• Expert systems
• Natural language processing
• Intelligent agents
• Pattern recognition
• Virtual reality and simulation devices
• Robotics
• Fuzzy logic
• Neural networks
51
Expert Systems
• Built by knowledge engineers
• Include surface knowledge and deep knowledge
• Three components of an expert system:

• Knowledge base: an expert system’s database of knowledge about a
particular subject
• Inference engine: the software that controls the search of the expert
system’s knowledge base and produces conclusions
• User interface: the display screen for the user to interact with the expert
system
52
Expert
System
53
Natural language processing
• Allows users to interact with a system using normal language
• The study of ways for computers to recognize and understand human
language
Intelligent agents
• A form of software with built-in intelligence that monitors work patterns,
asks questions, and performs work tasks on your behalf; shop bots are
intelligent agents
54
Pattern recognition
• Involves a camera and software that identify recurring visual patterns by
mapping them against similar patterns stored in a database (e.g., visual
surveillance and ID of suspicious people)
Virtual reality & simulation devices

• A computer-generated artificial reality that projects a person into a
sensation of 3-D space
• Often used as simulators to represent the behavior of physical or abstract
systems—e.g., for pilot training
55
Robotics
• The development and study of machines that can perform actions that
are normally done by people
• Robots grouped by locomotion system: grouped according to their means
of locomotion, which defines their shape. Thus, there are stationary,

wheeled, legged, swimming, flying, rolling, swarm, modular, micro, nano,
soft elastic, snake, and crawler robots (includes drones).
• Robots grouped by application: grouped according to the application they
are supposed to perform, so that shape is not important. Thus, in health and
medicine, there are wearable machines to help amputees walk, wheeled
robots (medi-bots) that roam hospital halls and make visits to patients on
behalf of their doctors, and robots used in surgery that perform actual
operations.
56
Fuzzy logic
• A method of dealing with imprecise data and uncertainty, with
problems that have many answers rather than one
• Similar to human logic
• Has been applied in running elevators to determine optimum times

for elevators to wait; used in many appliances
Neural network: consists of a network of processors that are
interconnected in a way that is similar to the connections
between neurons, or nerve cells, in the human body. The neural
network is able to simulate the behavior of biological neural

networks, as in pattern recognition, language processing, and
problem solving. A neural network is able to learn from example
and does not require detailed instructions.
• Neural networks have been used in machine vision, credit-card fraud
detection, and diagnosis of heart attacks.
8.8 Artificial Life, the Turing
Test, & the Singularity
Artificial intelligence leads to the question of how can we know a machine is
truly intelligent, which figures in the Turing test.
Turing Test: In 1950 Allen Turing predicted computers would eventually be
able to mimic human thinking.
• Turing test determines whether the computer is human

• Judge is in another location and doesn’t see the computer
• Judge converses via a computer terminal with two entities: one a person and one a
computer
• Judge must determine who is the person and who is the computer
• If the computer can fool the judge, it is said to be intelligent
• No computer system has yet passed the Turing test
60
Smarter-Than-Human Computers
The Singularity
• A moment when humans would have created self-aware, smarter-than-human
machines capable of designing computers and robots that are better than humans
can design today

• Also may involve transferring the contents of human brains and thought processes
into a computing environment
61
Ethics in A.I.
• Ethics underlies everything having to do with AI.
• Computer software is subtly shaped by the ethical judgments and
assumptions of its creators; there is no human-values-free / bias-free
software.
• Will AI cause humans to lose control of computer systems?
62
Databases: Concerns about Privacy & Identity Theft
• Databases have facilitated loss of privacy and identity theft, which have
become significant concerns for many people.

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The Era of Big Data:

8.3 Database Models

• Big Data is so large and complex that it cannot be processed

using conventional methods, such as ordinary database

8.1 Managing Files

• File (table): collection of related records

• Often an identifying number, such as social security number or a student

causes problems keeping all the copies current)

• Ensures the database’s:

8.3 Database Models

with child (low-level) records subordinate to parent (high-level) records

• Similar to a hierarchical database but more flexible-- each child record

keys, or common data elements

qualifications for choosing records

• Data in any form, including audio, graphics, and video

• Allows users to ask questions in colloquial

Database Type Description

8.4 Data Mining

1. Identify and connect to data sources

sense of the oceans of data, there is advanced computer processing and

overconfidence in our own intuitions and can help reduce the

• What are the qualities of good information?

strategic, planning and decisions

• Companies use Groupware CSCW (computer-supported cooperative work)

1. Office information systems

operating an efficient office and to increase productivity

Uses data from internal systems and data from outside

Executive Support System

would otherwise require the assistance of a human expert

8.7 Artificial Intelligence

• Conventional AI attempts to mimic human intelligence through logic and symbol

human intelligence. That is, weak AI suggests that some “thinking-like”

• Three components of an expert system:

Virtual reality & simulation devices

of locomotion, which defines their shape. Thus, there are stationary,

• Has been applied in running elevators to determine optimum times

network is able to simulate the behavior of biological neural

Test, & the Singularity

• Turing test determines whether the computer is human

can design today

become significant concerns for many people.

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