Human Remains as Evidence

Forensic Anthropology,
Taphonomy & Entomology
Week 07
Lecture Objectives

 Define the scope and application of forensic anthropology

 Explore the techniques involved in forensic taphonomy

 Describe the role and methods used in forensic entomology

Defining Forensic Anthropology

 Application of the theory and methods of

anthropology to forensic problems
 Physical anthropology
 Archeological methods

 Focus on HUMAN IDENTIFICATION

Defining Forensic Anthropology

 Tasks
 Identify victim or biological profile
 Taphonomic assessment
 Provide data regarding death event

 Recovery and examination involves multidisciplinary team

History

 1878: The Identification of the Human Skeleton: A Medicolegal

Study, by Thomas Dwight

 1939: Guide to the Identification of Human Skeletal Material, by

Wilton Marion Krogman for the FBI

 1947: Central Identification Laboratory established in Hawaii –

ID of war dead
Modern Period

 1957: Skeletal Age Changes in Young American Males, by

McKern & Stewart for age determination of deceased soldiers

 1972: Establishment of Physical Anthropology Section in the

American Academy of Forensic Sciences, by Ellis Kerley &
Clyde Snow

 1977: American Board of Forensic Anthropology, Certification

Board
What is Forensic Anthropology?
 Defined as the application of the theory and methods of
anthropology to forensic problems.

 Most forensic anthropologists have been specialists in

physical anthropology, and particularly skeletal biology.

 Primarily investigate death and injury for criminal or

civil legal purposes.

 Forensic anthropologists knowledge of human skeleton

complements forensic pathologists understanding of
soft tissue
The forensic anthropologist is…

 An expert on boney anatomy (osteology)

 An expert on evidence collection and preservation (forensic

investigation)

 An expert in archaeology (more than simply Indiana Jones…)

Forensic Anthropology
 Expanded to include:

 Forensic taphonomy- interpretation of primarily outdoor

death scenes and postmortem processes

 Forensic archaeology – recovery of scattered remains

 Extrapolation of soft tissue based on skeletal form

 Biomechanical interpretation of sharp and blunt force

injuries, primarily to bone
Forensic Anthropology
 Examination of human remains by forensic anthropologists
focuses on three tasks:

1. Identifying the victim or at least providing a biological profile ( age,

sex, stature, ancestry, anomalies, pathology and individual
features) continued
Forensic Anthropology
2. Reconstructing postmortem period based on condition of the
remains and recovery context
3. Providing data regarding death event, including evidence of
trauma

 If anthropologist has participated in recovery, he or she will

document recovery processes and forensic taphonomy of site
Forensic Anthropology as a Profession

How many bones does an adult

human have?

What about an infant?

Forensic Anthropology as a Profession

 Knowledge
 Odontology and
Osteology

 Distinguish alternations:
▪ Antemortem
▪ Perimortem
▪ Postmortem
Forensic Anthropology as a Profession

 Direct/participate in body recoveries

 Preferred – taphonomic context

 If not available: examination should

include description and evaluation
of taphonomic conditions
 Contextual or environmental data
Locating Human Remains
 Mass fatality incident or human right
investigation
 Small or broad area
 Terrestrial or over water
 Aid by rescue teams, cadaver dogs or divers

 Role: Team member or Team leader

 On-site evaluation
 Allows for revision of search strategy
 Inform team when remains are complete
Scene Processing
 Forensic physical anthropologist often participates in searches of
human remains by law enforcement or medical examiners

 Cadaver dogs, search and rescue teams or divers may assist depending
on need

 Forensic physical anthropologist generally does on site identification of

remains and evaluation

 Taphonomic context
Buried Remains
 Screening area convenient to grave should be set up for
sifting through material from grave
 Staging area for excavation is completed to give leeway
around grave
 Knowledge of position of body prior to excavation is helpful

 Small tools ( trowels, brushes) should be used.

Buried Remains
 As soon as they are exposed, any body parts or bones should be
photographed

 All sediment from grave should be screened to search for hair, bones,
teeth, fragments or other evidentiary material

 Water screening may be necessary in cases of muddy conditions

 Routine photographs of scene should be taken periodically throughout

process
Buried Remains
 Entire area must be photographed before work starts
 Area must be gridded to complete spatial measurements
 Metal detector may be used and “hits” flagged
 Examination for insects, larval or adult, should be collected and
preserved
 Postmortem plants associated with body should be collected
Buried Remains
 Exposure of body or skeleton prior to removal from gravesite
assists in investigation
 Grave perimeter should be closely inspected for footprints,
tools, etc
 Body or skeleton removed to body bag

 After removal, continued excavation and sifting/screening

should be completed
Recovering Remains

 Process:
 Superimpose a grid
 Photograph and document before work
 Examine for insects and plants
 Remains removed gradually, recording
position

 Destroying the scene?

 Screening vs. Staging areas

Lab Processing
The Prime Questions
1. Are the remains human?

2. Do they represent a single individual or the commingled remains

of several?

3. When did death occur?

4. How old was the decedent?

5. What was the decedent’s sex?

6. What was the decedent’s race?

7. What was the decedent’s stature? Body weight? Physique?

The Prime Questions

8. Does the skeleton (or body) exhibit any significant anatomical

anomalies, signs of old disease and injuries or other characteristics
which, either alone or together, are sufficiently unique to provide
positive identification of the decedent?

9. What was the cause of death? (e.g. gunshot wound, blunt force
trauma, tuberculosis, etc)

10. What was the manner of death? (natural, accident, suicide,

homicide, unknown)
Are They Human?

 Differentiating is a critical function

 Similarities
 Mammalian and avian long bones
 Bear paws and human hands and feet
 Immature humans bones and teeth and
other animals
▪ Unfused newborn skull has many bony elements

 Reference collection just in case

Are They of Forensic Importance?

 Unexpectedly found human remains are turned

over to ME
 Sometimes unmarked historic or prehistoric graves

 Anthropologists can identify by appearance of

body and grave if notmodern
Taphonomic Context of the Remains

 Taphonomic context
 Immediate environment and surroundings where the
body is found
 Helps determine death time line

 Aid in:
 Interpretation of condition of remains
 Estimating postmortem interval
▪ Heat and moisture are important factors
 Location of death
Taphonomic Condition of the Remains

 Taphonomic assessment
 Documentation of the condition of the body

 Assessments:
 Stage of decomposition
 Amount of scattering
 Drying and bleaching by the weather
 Other changes
Soft Tissue Examination and Processing

 Information about age, sex, and medical conditions

 X-rays
 Locate bullets or teeth
 Bone formation centers in infants
Developing a Biological Profile

 Goal: describe the individual as to narrow the range of

possible identities
 Age, sex, population ancestry, stature

 Not too specific or general

 Erroneous exclusions

 Use of statistical descriptions

 Difficult if unique individual
Estimating Age

Growth and Development

 Skeleton formed
 Growth of ossification centers are patterned
 Newborn has ~405 ossification centers
 Males vs. Females
 Females develop earlier on average
 Populations
 Development differs slightly
Estimating Age
 Forensic physical anthropologist must be familiar with size of skeletons at
all ages – focused on developmental and degenerative changes in the
skeleton

 Diaphyses- length of long bone shafts, may be compared to published

tables to assist in age identification

 Epiphysis- two ends of bones

 Timing of formation, growth and fusion of diaphyses and epiphysis are

patterned to create estimate
Estimating Age

How many teeth does a child

have?

An adult?
Estimating Age

Growth and Development

 Tooth Development
 Fetal life – formation
 6 months old – eruption and formation of
permanent teeth
 6 years old – loose teeth and permanent erupt
 18 years old – eruption of third molars
 Dental development vs. Bone development
Estimating Age

Age Related Changes in the Adult

 Bone Density depends  Observing Bone
on: Density
 Age  Macroscopic
 Hormonal status  Radiographic
 Weight bearing exercise  Bone densitometry
 Nutrition  Deterioration of Bone
Density
Estimating Age

Age Related Changes in the Adult

 Pubic symphysis – most reliable indicator of
age
 Billowed to flattened and rimmed
 Age and sex associated stages
 Fourth rib
 Age related changes
 Cranium
 Fusion between bones
Estimating Age
Age-Related Patterns in Adulthood

 Bone density changes – bony skeleton is not fixed until

adulthood – post thirties

 Bone density generally reaches peak in twenties & declines in

forties - osteoarthritis

 Bone density depends upon age, hormonal status, exercise,

weight, and nutritional intake
Age-Related Patterns in Adulthood

Two of the most reliable indicators of adult age in Pelvic Joint

Morphology are:

 Pubic symphysis – measures surface changes in pubic bones and

published standards exist

 Iliac auricular surface –measures joint surface changes to the

auricular surface
(where ilium connects to the sacrum)
Age-Related Patterns in Adulthood

 Sternal Rib Morphology – age related changes in morphology of

sternal end of 4th rib can be measured and compared to standards
 Ossification of hyaline cartilage- cartilage which connects ribs to the
sternum turns stony with age and can be considered a general
indicator of age
 Dental changes- changes to teeth can be measured, but age range
estimate only.
Determining Sex

What is the difference between

gender and sex?
Determining Sex
 Sexual dimorphism
 Size is an indicator of sex
 Different Visual ques between sexes
 Morphological overlap between sexes
 Ex. Males are taller than females when describing
the entire population
 Before puberty small differences
 After puberty differences increases
 Skull and pelvis
 No morphological indicator of sex is perfect
Sexual Dimorphism

 Male and female Homo Sapiens differ by size

 DNA methods can produce accurate determinate of sex

 Determination of biological sex of skeletal remains is an

inexact science
Sexual Dimorphism

Typically, the female pelvis has:

 broader & increased pelvic inlet & outlet

 Broad, shallow sciatic notch

 U-shaped sub pubic angle

Sexual Dimorphism
Males tend to have:

 Larger skull with more right-angled jaw

 Skull is more robust at areas of attachment and on brows and ridges

 Exhibits larger joint surfaces- mandibular and occipital condoyles

 Post cranial skeleton- below skull, on average, is larger than females

 Larger weight-bearing joint surfaces- hip

Estimating Population Ancestry

The Concept of Race

 Socially constructed typologies
 Population boundaries are arbitrary
 Difficult/impossible to determine membership based on skeletal
characteristics
Estimating Population Ancestry

 Homo Sapiens is a single species

 No absolute physical or genetic reproductive barriers between

races – variation within a race is greater than between two
races.

 Decisions about population boundaries are arbitrary and

ultimately, fluid
Estimating Population Ancestry

When an unidentified body is discovered, the forensic

anthropologist will:
 Reduce possibilities of group- age, sex or population
 Use statistics from databases to assist thorough research-
unfortunately, all databases have limits based on skeletal remains of
people measured
Estimating Population Ancestry

 Skeletal morphology is produced by genetic and non genetic

factors

 Includes both metric (continuous and measurable) and

nonmetric (present to absent traits)
Estimating Population Ancestry

 Metric statistical methods require use of formula for

discriminate function
 Midfacial flatness using a sinometer

 Nonmetric traits – specific traits of Western European, Asian,

or native American traits are assessed:
 Nasal bridge is normally flatter on Native Americans and Asians
Estimating Population Ancestry

 Goal: Reduce the possibilities for group membership (age, sex, or

population

 Morphology both genetic and non-genetic

 Metric vs. non-metric traits

 Importance of reference populations

 Many methods; utilize skull

 Ex: Assessing facial flatness
Estimating Stature

 Not a fixed trait

 Morning to night
 Over lifetime

 Measurement usually done incorrectly

 Various methods to estimate

 Use of formulas
Estimating Stature
 When a body is decomposed or skeletonized, stature can be calculated
▪ If body is articulated, length can be measured
▪ If body is disarticulated, but head, spine, pelvis and at least one leg are
present, individual bone heights can be measured and estimates made for
vertebral disc thickness and total stature (allometry)

 Science is systematic but not exact - Stature is a fixed trait: accurate

measurement of individual is in a range

 Measurements differ from population to population

Estimating Stature

Allometry:
 Extrapolating from lengths of long bones
 Osteometry

 Use of formulas
 Developed for reference populations
 Systematic ≠ exact

 Reported as a range
Issues in Identification

What type of techniques are

used for positive
identification?
Issues in Identification

 Visual identification or circumstantial evidence

 Guide towards positive ID

 Unique anatomic features
 Facial approximation

 Issues
 Cartilage
 Ancestry features
 Tissue thickness
 Guessing at key descriptive features
Individuation and Identification

 Aid of descriptive characteristics

 Medical conditions
 Handedness
 Occupational stress markers
 Congenital anomaly
 Antemortem medical conditions or Pathology
Trauma

 Types:
 Antemortem trauma
 Perimortem trauma
 Taphonomic damage

 Blunt force vs. Sharp force

 Plastic deformation
Perimortem Trauma and Evidence for Cause and
Manner of Death

 Distinguishing between antemortem and perimortem injury with bones is

very difficult.

 Observation of a broken bone showing no signs of healing- however, bones

take several days to start the healing process

 Blunt force trauma produces impact marks fractures and may fragmented
bones, depending on item causing damage

 Sharp force trauma may produce cut or impact scars, depending on weapon

 Gunshot wounds – special form of blunt trauma –will create signature

patterns in bones, particularly skulls; frequently possible to determine order
of gunshot wounds by assessing fracture lines
Patterned Injury

 Forensic anthropologists look at pattern of antemortem and

postmortem injuries

 Necessary to rule out postmortem modification through

microscopy

 Different agents of bone modification produce similar types of

damage
Documentation and Testimony

 Anthropology Record
 Full range of measurements and determinations

 Abbreviated Report
 Chain of custody
 Taphonomic assessment
 Biological profile
 Identification characteristics
 Description of trauma
Documentation and Testimony

 Importance of scientific neutrality and objectivity

 Restriction of scientific certainty

 90% or higher
 99% for positive ID

 Scientific probability
 < 50%
 ~67% – 90%

 All contestable areas in court – proper populations; certainty; etc.

Forensic Entomology
Forensic Entomology

What is
entomology?
Introduction

 Pathologists – Biological changes

 Occur within first 48 hours

 Entomologists – insect evidence – minimum time

 Moment of death up to a year or more

 Insect associated factors:

 Body movement and disturbance
 Wound sites
 Drugs and poisons
 Length of time of neglect or abuse
Importance of Estimating Elapsed Time Since Death

 Humanitarian reasons
 Family grieving and healing
 Legal implications
 Life insurance
 Criminal reasons
 Success of investigation
▪ Suspect’s alibi, victim’s ID, associates, activities, etc.
History

 Writing from 10th and 13th century

Modern: 150+ years old
 1894 – Jean-Pierre Megnin
 Throughout 20th century – Europe
 1970’s – North America
 1996 – American Board of Forensic Entomology
 2001 – European Association of Forensic Entomology
 2002 – North American Forensic Entomology Meeting
Estimating Minimum Elapsed Time Since Death

 2 Methods:
 Larval Diptera; flies
▪ Known passage of time from when the first egg is laid on
the remains until the first adult flies emerges
▪ Time range: Few hours to several weeks
 Carrion insects
▪ Successional colonization
▪ Time range: weeks after death until dry bones remain
Dipteran Larval Development or Maggot Aging

Do insects colonize animals and

humans differently?
Dipteran Larval Development or Maggot Aging

 First to colonize: Blow fly

 Large, metallic blue or green flies
 Attraction:
 A protein meal to allow their
genitalia to develop
 Suitable sites to lay their eggs
▪ Locate based on chemical cues
▪ Arrive soon after death
Dipteran Larval Development or Maggot Aging

 Conditions:
 Summer vs. Winter
 Day vs. Night: Diurnal
 Location:
 First site of colonization: Wounds or orifices
 Dipteran Larval Development or Maggot Aging

 Stages: Large maggot mass on pig carcass.

 Predictable pattern Insects are blow fly larvae (Diptera:
 Influenced by species and Calliphoridae). Note foam created by
temperature metabolism and motion of insects and
 First-instar: hatched eggs red crops clearly visible in maggots
 (arrow).
Second-instar: shedding
 Third-instar: feeding
 Non-feeding/wondering stage
 Puparial: metamorphoses

Nonfeeding third-instar larvae leaving food source in order to find

suitable puparation site. (A) Crop no longer visible. (B) Large
number of nonfeeding third-instar larvae burrow into soil.
Dipteran Larval Development or Maggot Aging

 Factors that must be known:

 The oldest stage of blow fly associated with the body
 The species of insect
 Temperature data
 Developmental data
 Answer the question:
 How long does it take this species to reach this stage,
under these conditions?
Successional Colonization of a Body

 Dead body is a rich nutritional resource

 Infestation sequence depends on the
nutritional changes in the body
 Predictability = tenure of insects on the body
 Step 1: Identify species present and not
present
 Successional data is dependent on
geographical and habitat specific data
Indicating whether the body has been moved

 Not uncommon for the killer to leave the

remains and come back
 Blow flies colonize body
 Moving – Insects are out of usual habitat and
in a new area
 Found – Insects from new and old habitat are
observed
 Urban vs. Rural
Determining whether the body has been disturbed
after death

 Disturbances are not uncommon

 Disturb insects in the process

 Estimation of time since death and time of

disturbance
 Corroborate evidence
▪ Alibi for time of death and disturbance?
Locating the Position of Wounds

 Laying eggs close to a wound is a survival

strategy for flies

 How to locate:
 Look at pattern of maggot colonization

 Indication of rape or normal colonization?

 Insects will remove DNA evidence rapidly
Entomotoxicology

 Toxocologists: analyze bodily samples to

determine toxins
 Need a fairly fresh body
 “Fresh” insects

 Analyzed the same way a piece of the human

tissue is:
 Maggots, pupae, puparial cases, and beetles
Entomotoxicology

Do the drugs the insects digest effect

them in similar ways as they do
humans?
DNA and Insects

 Roles:
 Identify the insect
▪ Broken specimens or badly preserved
 Retrieval of victim DNA
▪ Used when body has been moved

 Use of other insects

 Bedbugs and fleas – link suspects to a room
Use of insects in investigating abuse or neglect cases

Why would insects feed on a living

humans or animals flesh?
Use of insects in investigating abuse or neglect cases

 Myiasis – infestation of living with dipteran larvae

 Cleaning of the wound
 Feed on living tissue

 Mechanical transmission of bacteria

 Estimate length of time since person :

 Was wounded
 Last received medical attention
Use of insects in investigating abuse or neglect cases

 Who?
 Incapable – young, old, incapacitated
 Unwilling – alcoholics or drug users

 Problem with living:

 Third-instar maggots could be dropped anywhere
 Successive colonization – new bugs
Use of insects in investigating abuse or neglect cases

 Maggot debridement therapy

 World War I – Dr. William Baer
 Lack of hygiene – Infected wounds often meant
amputation or death
 Removal of maggots -> soldiers succumbed
 Not ‘modern’ medicine
▪ Osteomyelitis
 Issue: transmission of bacteria
What does a lack of insects on a body mean?

 Too early in the year to colonize

 Too cold for colonization

 Time at death scene too short

 Recently dumped; killed elsewhere
 Freshly killed
Challenges to Forensic Entomologist

What are some impeding

challenges a forensic
entomologist faces?
Temperature

 Impacts insect development

 Usually unknown and estimated

 Predicting scene temperatures

 Macro- vs. Microclimatic factors
▪ Data logger
 Statistical analysis
▪ Scene vs. Weather station
Season

 Insects are seasonal

 Temperate regions: Spring, Summer, and Fall
 Tropical or subtropical regions: All year

 Cold seasons may be of value

 Occurrence prior to cold season
Exclusion of Insects

 Cause for Exclusion

 Frozen after death
▪ Naturally – insects will colonize when thawed
▪ Artificially – excluded until removed and defrosted
 Burial – rarely deep enough to exclude
 Wrapping – insects able to penetrate wrappings
Case Study
The Herring Case
Basic Details
 Skeletonized body in a vacant lot, in a run-down part
of city

 Bones taken to the medical examiner’s office, stored

and forgotten about… for three years.

 “The squeaky wheel gets the oil; the silent bones get
ignored” – eventually readdressed

 What would you want to know next?

Examination
 Recovery details:
 Almost complete – missing small bones; hands & feet
 Some damage – appears left foot gnawed off; some pelvic damage
– both consistent with scavenging by dogs
 Mummified tendons, ligaments, & some flesh across body
 Evidence of numerous healed fractures – nose, legs – as well as
spinal scoliosis
 Only 11 (of 32) teeth are present – 13 lost before death; 8 after and
not recovered. No evidence of dental work or current cavities
 Hair, clothing, and three hospital ID bracelets were found with the
body – hair is gray-brown, clothing female, and the ID bracelets are
illegible

 Now what would you do?

Biological Profile
 Sex determination
 Sciatic notch is wide, but not extremely wide.
 A slight preauricular sulcus exists (indication of childbirth, but sometimes in male
athletes).
 Subpubic angle is more typically male.

 Frontal bone bears two prominences, with a robust mastoid process, heavier
supraorbital ridges, and rugged cranial base.
 The mandible is gracile, more female. Pointed, not square, chin.

 What do you think – male or female?

Biological Profile

 Age determination
 Fusion of the clavicle epiphyses and the iliac crest are incomplete
(usually both by 30).
 Pubic symphyses have lost their ridge faces, indicated ages well
beyond 30, and as old as 80.
 Cranial sutures are open, indicating youth, but are rounded on their
edges, indicating a possible “lapsed union”.

 Thoughts? What’s going on?

Biological Profile
 Ancestry
 Overall consistent with European ancestry – hair, skull morph
 Stature
 Undamaged long bones used to est. 5’2” – 5’9”
 Damage to the spine (scoliosis; collapsed vertebrae)
 Trauma
 Teeth display very little abrasion (what does this suggest?)
 Skeleton is severely osteoporotic (what does this suggest?)
 Numerous healed fractures throughout but part. in the nose (crooked to the right),
right hand femur, tibia, and fibula – limp/shortened leg
 Fractures are at different stages of healing (what does this suggest?)
 No perimortem trauma – no postmortem beyond scavenging.

 What’s going on with this case? – summarize what we know.

 What HUGE question should we ask next?
 You have a profile – now what?
Identification

 What do you tell the police?

 What haven’t we investigated yet?

 THE ID BRACELETS…
 Questioned documents expert was able to read a name off two of
the bracelets – June Herring

 Where could you turn next for information?

Resolution

 The detective in charge recognizes the name immediately – a “bag

lady” in her late 60s with numerous arrests.

 Also involved in a number of accidents, and the victim of theft and

assault.

 She was ~5’4” tall, though would have been taller in her youth.

 Cause of death was determined to be natural, poor nutrition,

alcoholism, and living on the streets…
What-Ifs
 What can we take away from this case study?

 Was this case a disaster from a forensic anthropological point of view?

 What if this were a homicide?
 What if there were grieving family?
 How would the investigation been different if death was more recent?

 A short investigation (less than one day) led to identification – was

there a bias against the bones as having the potential for results as
compared to a more recent death?