Occupational Health & Safety

Chapter 7
Definition:
• Occupational health & safety: is defined as the
science and art devoted to the anticipation,
recognition, evaluation and control of those
environmental factors or stressors, arising in or from
the workplace, which may cause illness,
impaired health and well being, or significant
discomfort and inefficiency among workers or in the
community.
• Work has always been hazardous to
health and it is indispensable
• Occupational diseases and health
impairments occur every day
• A number of agents may go beyond
the workplace
• In broadest sense, occupational health and

safety should aim at the:

– promotion and maintenance of the highest

degree of physical, mental and social wellbeing

of workers in all occupations

– prevention among workers of adverse effects

on health caused by their working conditions

– Protection of workers in their employment

from risks resulting from factors adverse to

health

– Adaptation of work to humans

• This is only possible if a tri-partite relationship
exists between:

– Government department

– Employer and

– Employees
 Occupational Exposure Limits (Standards)

• OEL can be defined as the maximum

concentration of an air contaminants and levels
of physical agents to which an employee can be
safely exposed for an 8hr period in one workday
without any adverse health effects.
• Exposure limits are numerical values that
indicate whether an exposure may cause
harm or not
• At best such values represent bench-marks,
or guides for protection action.
2. RECOGNITION OF HAZARDS
•  Recognition is a systematic approach,

consisting of gathering information and

workplace survey for identifying:
– what actual and

– potential hazards exist.

• An unrecognized hazard can never be
controlled
• Recognizing a workplace hazard is the first step
in overcoming it
 Classification of Occupational Health Hazards

1. Chemical hazards

2. Physical hazards

3. Biological hazards

4. Mechanical hazards

5. Ergonomic hazards and

6. Psychosocial hazards
1. Chemical Hazards
• Recognition of chemical hazards involves
the identification of agents
• knowledge of health effects may be gained
from the material safety data sheet (MSDS)
• All hazardous materials in the workplace
must have an up-to-date MSDS
States of Matter
• refers to the form of a substance
• A substance can be in three states of matter:
• Chemical hazards include
– Asbestos

– coal dust

– acids and alkalis

– gases such as SO2, CO2, CO, NOx,

– heavy metal poisonings

– long list of toxic substances

• For these chemical substances to cause harm, they
must first enter the body
• There are three main routes, these are:
Dusts as Chemical Hazards  
• Dusts are small, dry, solid particles
projected in to the air by natural forces
such as wind, volcanic eruptions and by
mechanical and/or man-made processes
such as crushing, grinding, milling, drilling,
demolition…
• Dust particles are usually in the size range

from below 1µm up to around 100µm

in diameter, which may be or become air

borne, depending on their origin, physical
characteristics and ambient conditions.
Principles of Major Organ Physiology
Routes of Entry
1. The Respiratory System
• Inhalation is the main routs of entry due to
the speed with which toxic substances are
absorbed and enter the blood stream.
 • For particulates to
reach the lungs, they
must first pass
through series of air
passages connecting
the lungs and the
nose

Fig.1. Human respiratory system

•  The hazard (s) associated with dusts and fumes
generally depend on:
– amount (time and frequency)
– Kind (the toxicity)

– size (respirable or non-respirable fraction?)

– concentration (dust/fumes in the air), is the

specified OEL exceeded?);

– form (shape of the particles, size distribution in the

air, etc).
Particle size distribution
•  Respirable fraction: Only particles with an
aerodynamic diameter less than 7µm which will
enter the lungs and settle in the alveoli.
• Inhalable fraction: Also known as total amount
of dust that can enter the nose and the mouth
• Most OELs refer to respirable fraction
Respiratory Effects of Inhaled particles
•  Health effects, which may result from
exposure to different types of dust,
include
1. Pneumoconiosis
2. Cancer
3. Irritation and inflammatory lung injuries &
4. Allergic responses.
1. Pneumoconiosis
•  Pneumoconiosis is the accumulation
of dust in the lungs and the tissue
reaction to its presence.
The most serious types of pneumoconiosis
A. Asbestosis/white lung/
• A type of pneumoconiosis which is caused by
prolonged inhalation of asbestos fibers
B. Silicosis
• Silicosis is a fibrotic lung disease that is
caused by overexposure to dusts composed
of or containing free crystalline silica
• Silica is the chief mineral constituent of sand
and of many kinds of rock
C. Byssinosis/brown lung/brown lung disease

• Byssinosis is a respiratory disorder caused by

inhalation of an endotoxin produced by bacteria

in the fibers of cotton

• It is common among textile workers

D. Black lung (coal miners' pneumoconiosis)
• Black lung or coal miners' pneumoconiosis is
a type of pneumoconiosis that is caused by
excessive inhalation of coal dusts
• The disease is most commonly found among
miners of coal, and graphite workers
2. Lung Cancer

• Exposure to much less asbestos + cigarette

smoking and asbestos exposure occurred

3. Irritation and inflammatory lung injuries
•  Certain dusts have irritant effects up
on the upper respiratory tract and can
produce chronic bronchitis from
continuous irritation, which can lead to
chronic emphysema.
4. Allergic responses
•  Some dusts may cause allergic reactions in
the respiratory system.
• The two main respiratory diseases of allergic
type are occupational asthma and extrinsic
allergic alveiolitis.
• Extrinsic allergic alveolitis: is caused by
moulds and their spores that grow on the
materials, particularly under damp conditions.
• This is the case of

– Farmer's lung: caused by mouldy straw or hay

– Bagassosis: caused by mouldy sugar cane

– Suberosis: caused by cork dust and other types

• Other types of respiratory effects from
exposure to chemical dusts include
– metal fume fever and
– emphysema.
Metal fume fever
•  Metal fume fever is an acute disease,
which occurs when fume is inhaled from a
metal heated to a temperature above its
melting point.
Emphysema
•  Literally means over inflation of the alveoli
sacs
• The walls of the alveoli lose their elasticity
resulting to air flowing in to sacs easily but
cannot flow out without great effort
• Pressure builds up in the cells and their walls
are ruptured
• The person can breathe in but cannot
breathe out efficiently
• It is mainly caused by exposure to vanadium
dusts
 2. Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT)

•  GIT is another route

of entry for toxic

substances and is a
major route of
excretion.
• In the workplace ingestion of toxic
chemicals is usually accidental and most
commonly results from handling
contaminated:

Food Drink Cigarettes

Effects of Substances on GIT
• In itself the GIT shows little or no effects
from the ingestion of chemicals, as many
substances are broken down or
inactivated resulting from the acidity in
the stomach.
 Substances however can have the following
effects on the GIT:
a. GIT irritation: Eating or drinking foods
containing high levels of Benzene, Methylene
chloride (CH2Cl2) and Xylene
b. Stomach cancer -e.g. Rubber dust, Ethylene
Oxide (C2H4O), etc
3. The Skin
• The skin is not only the largest organ of
the body, it is also the organ most
exposed to the external environment.
Effects of Substances on the skin
A. Physical conditions
– Chapping and fissure. e.g. Benzene, Gas, etc

–  Burns -e.g. KOH, NaOH, H2SO4, HN03, H2O2, etc

– Rashes-e.g. Formaldehyde, Xylene and

Benzene cause dry and scaly rashes by
defatting the keratin layer.
B. Contact dermatitis (skin irritation)
• Contact dermatitis may develop if exposure to

chemicals is continued.

• It is confined at one place and disappears

within short times.

Examples of common skin irritants:
– Beryllium metal

– Methylene chloride

– Formaldehyde

– Benzene

– Xylene

– Acetone

– Toluene Diisocyanate, etc.

C. Allergic dermatitis (sensitizations)
• Symptoms are similar to the symptoms of
contact dermatitis but it may not be confined to
area of contact.
• Once a worker has been sensitized, even slight
contact may trigger a reaction.
D. Skin cancer • The skin cancer can be
induced by many chemicals
including tar, soot...used in
mineral oils.
• For instance, malignant
melanoma a cancer of
the melanin pigment cells
is the most dangerous one
4. The Circulatory System
•  Once a contaminant has entered the body it is
distributed by the circulatory system.
Effects of chemical substances on the
Circulatory System
– Insufficient O2 supply to the heart.

– Anemia and chromosomal damage in white

blood cell.
– Cardiac arrest

– Enlargement of the heart

– Leukemia
Example of substances:
– CO

– Ethylene Oxide (C2H4O)

– Benzene
– Phenol

– Arsine (ASH3), etc

2. Physical Hazard
Physical agents in the workplace include:
– Noise

– Vibration
– Heat and cold exposure

– Poor lighting and

– Radiation( Ionizing and non-ionizing)
1. Noise
•  Noise is usually described as unwanted sound.
Effects of Noise
•  The effects of noise can be simplified into three
general categories:

Primary Effects: which includes

• noise-induced temporary threshold shift

• noise- induced permanent threshold shift

(Noise Induced Hearing Loss)
• acoustic trauma and

• tinnitus.
Effects on Communication and Performance:
Which may include isolation, annoyance,
difficulty concentrating, absenteeism, and
accidents
Other Effects: which may include stress, muscle
tension, ulcers, increased blood pressure,
increased breathing rate, disturbed digestion
and hypertension
• Noises above 90 dB are likely to cause
damage to a proportion of the exposed
population with continued exposure
• Very high levels may cause damage after
relatively short periods, even when the noise
is intermittent
Presbycusis
•  Presbycusis is the gradual decline of hearing
function that results from aging
2. Vibration
• Vibration is the oscillatory motion of a
structure or machine
• Vibration can produce noise
• There are two types of vibration:

2.1.Whole Body Vibration(WBV)

• Whole-body vibration is experienced in
surface and air transport, with motion
sickness as its most familiar effect
• It occurs when the whole body is
affected .e.g. Vehicle drivers, riding in
vehicles, etc
 Effects of Whole Body Vibration (WBV)

• Annoyance and • Visual disturbances

discomfort
• Nausea
• Fatigue

• Impaired efficiency • Abdominal pain

• Accidents may increase • sleeplessness

• Headaches
2.2. Hand- Arm Vibration
•  Hand-Arm Vibration occurs when holding
vibrating tools
• Prolonged or repeated exposure can lead to
a painful and disabling disease known as
vibration white finger
Fig 5. Hand-Arm Vibration
Fig.6 Vibration White Finger
3. Heat and Cold Factors
• Humans are warm blooded organism
• This means that they can regulate their
own body temperature between certain
narrow limits (37 c + 20c).
• heat generated must be equal to heat lost
to maintain equilibrium
• Repeated exposure to heat results in
modified responses known as
acclimatization
• Acclimatization: is the physiological and
behavioral adjustment of an organism to
changes in its environment.
A. Heat Stress
•  Heat stress may be defined as the
combined effect of the working
environment (high temperatures) and
the physical demands of the task (hard
labor)
Such places include:

– iron and steel foundries

– brick-firing and ceramic plants

– glass products facilities

– rubber product factories

– electrical utilities

– Bakeries

– commercial kitchens
– Laundries

– food canneries

– chemical plants
– mining sites

– smelters, and

– steam tunnels.
B. Cold Stress
•  Cold stress could mainly be defined as the
effect of the external working environment
(Very low temperature, i.e. less than 60C)
and the resultant inability of the body to
maintain a constant internal body
temperature
• The body parts most commonly affected by
frostbite are face, ears, fingers, and toes.
• When tissue freezes, blood vessels are damaged

• This reduces blood flow and may cause gangrene.

4. Lighting in the Workplace
•  The quality of lighting in a workplace can have
a significant effect on productivity.
• With adequate lighting workers can produce
more products with fewer mistakes, which can
lead to a 10-50 % increase in productivity.
• Good lighting can decrease errors by 30-60% as
well as decrease eye-strain and the
headaches, nausea, and neck pain which often
accompany eyestrain.
Effects of Poor Illumination
• visual fatigue, itself may be a causative factor
in industrial accidents
• delayed eye adaptation when coming from
bright surroundings into darker ones
• Accidents
5. Radiation
5.1. Non-Ionizing Radiation
•  It is electromagnetic radiation with varying effects on
the exposed body depending largely on the particular
wavelength of the radiation involved. It includes:
• Ultraviolet
• Infrared
• Microwaves

• ELF fields
 Health effects are focused on:
• Heating where it can cause localized burns
or affect the whole body
• Psychological disturbances

• Cancer from long term exposure

5.2. Ionizing Radiation
•  The effects from this type of radiation
differ significantly from other electromagnetic
radiation
• These types of radiations contain a large
amount of energy and are capable of
penetrating into living tissue
• Any electromagnetic or particulate radiation
capable of producing ions is referred to as
ionizing radiation.
Sources of Exposure
•  The ionizing radiations of primary concern are

alpha and beta particles, gamma rays, and x-rays

• Alpha and beta particles and gamma rays can
come from natural sources or can be
technologically produced
• Most of the x-ray exposure people receive is
technologically produced.
• These include genetic effects
and other effects such as:
• Cancer
• precancerous lesions
• benign tumors
• Cataracts
• skin changes, and
• congenital defects.
3 Biological Hazards
• Biological agents are living things,
or substances produced by living
things, that can cause illness or
disease in humans
• Bacteria - parasites and
• Viruses -plants
• Fungi
Routes of Entry
Biological agents enter the body via
Transmission
Hospital Acquired (Nosocomial) Infections
•  Hospital acquired, or Nosocomial, infections
are becoming increasingly important in
modern intensive health care facilities
• Urinary tract infections are among
the most frequent infections
acquired in the hospital setting
(approximately 40% of the total)
4. Mechanical Hazards
• The mechanical hazards in industries are
contributed from machinery, protruding
and moving parts
• About 10% of accidents in industry are
reported to be mechanical causes
• There are many hazards in workplaces
associated with mechanical equipment
5. Ergonomic Hazards
• Ergonomics is about 'fit': the fit
between people, the things they
do, the objects they use and the
environments they work, travel
and play in.
• Improving the task or the work environment
are the major goals of ergonomics
Effects of Ergonomic Hazards

1. Back Pain
2. Musculoskeletal Injuries (MSI)
6. Psychosocial Hazards
• A simpler definition of psychosocial hazards
might be 'those aspects of the design and
management of work, and its social and
organizational contexts, which have the
potential for causing psychological or social
harm
 Example of psychosocial hazards include in the work place includes:

• Work overload and time pressure

• Lack of influence or control over how day-to-day

work is done
• Lack of social support from supervisors or co-
workers
• Lack of training or preparation to do the job

• Too little or too much responsibility

• Ambiguity in job responsibility

• Lack of status rewards (appreciation)

• Discrimination or harassment

• Poor communication

• Lack of support for work/family balance

• Lack of respect for employees and the work

they do.
4. Prevention and control of
occupational hazards
The concept of "reasonably practicable"
• Reasonably practicable relates to the control of
occupational hazards that can affect a worker.
• The definition refers to if a control is reasonably
practicable.
• The definition of reasonably practicable deals
with four aspects, namely:
1. The severity and scope of the hazard

2. State of knowledge

3. Accessibility and suitability of knowledge

or means

4. Cost factor
Hierarchy of Control – Source

•  The principles of hazard control are often – Path and

described by the location of the control:
– Worker
• Nevertheless, we can usefully summarize the
hierarchy as follows:
a. Elimination

b. Substitution
c. Engineering measures
• Enclosure

• Ventilation
• Air cleaners
d. Administrative measures
•Segregation

•Safe procedures of work

•Reducing exposure time
•Provision of hygiene facilities
e. Personal protective equipment includes:
•Eye protection and face protection

•Protective clothing

•Gloves (hand protection)

•Respiratory protective Equipment

•Hearing Protection