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    Structure and Bonding

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    fatraxii
    This document provides an introduction to organic chemistry, including: - Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds found in living things like proteins, DNA, foods and medicines. - The foundations of organic chemistry date back to the mid-1700s when compounds from plants/animals were difficult to isolate. - Carbon is unique in that it can form four covalent bonds, allowing for the vast array of carbon-containing compounds. - Atoms are made up of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons in different orbital shells. Covalent bonds form when orbitals overlap between atoms. - Lewis structures and Kekulé structures were developed to represent valence electrons and bonding in organic molecules.

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    Structure and Bonding

    Uploaded by

    fatraxii
    23 views30 pages
    This document provides an introduction to organic chemistry, including: - Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds found in living things like proteins, DNA, foods and medicines. - The foundations of organic chemistry date back to the mid-1700s when compounds from plants/animals were difficult to isolate. - Carbon is unique in that it can form four covalent bonds, allowing for the vast array of carbon-containing compounds. - Atoms are made up of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons in different orbital shells. Covalent bonds form when orbitals overlap between atoms. - Lewis structures and Kekulé structures were developed to represent valence electrons and bonding in organic molecules.

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    This document provides an introduction to organic chemistry, including: - Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds found in living things like proteins, DNA, foods and medicines. - The foundations of organic chemistry date back to the mid-1700s when compounds from plants/animals were difficult to isolate. - Carbon is unique in that it can form four covalent bonds, allowing for the vast array of carbon-containing compounds. - Atoms are made up of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons in different orbital shells. Covalent bonds form when orbitals overlap between atoms. - Lewis structures and Kekulé structures were developed to represent valence electrons and bonding in organic molecules.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pptx, pdf, or txt
    23 views30 pages

    Structure and Bonding

    Uploaded by

    fatraxii
    This document provides an introduction to organic chemistry, including: - Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds found in living things like proteins, DNA, foods and medicines. - The foundations of organic chemistry date back to the mid-1700s when compounds from plants/animals were difficult to isolate. - Carbon is unique in that it can form four covalent bonds, allowing for the vast array of carbon-containing compounds. - Atoms are made up of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons in different orbital shells. Covalent bonds form when orbitals overlap between atoms. - Lewis structures and Kekulé structures were developed to represent valence electrons and bonding in organic molecules.

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    STRUCTURE AND Lesson 1

    BONDING
    WHAT IS ORGANIC
    CHEMISTRY?
     study of carbon compounds
     Living things are made of organic
    chemicals
     Proteins that make up hair
     DNA, controls genetic heritage Atorvastatin

     Foods, medicines
    ORIGINS OF ORGANIC
    CHEMISTRY
     Foundations of organic chemistry date from the mid-
    1700’s.
     Compounds obtained from plants and animals are hard
    to isolate and purify.
     Compounds also decomposed more easily.
    ORIGINS OF ORGANIC
    CHEMISTRY
     Why is it so special?
    - most of the 50 million presently known chemical
    compounds contain carbon.
    - Examination of carbon in periodic chart answers
    some of these questions.
    - Carbon is group 4A element, it can share 4 valence
    electrons and form 4 covalent bonds
    THE NUCLEUS
    Structure of an atom: small diameter (2×10-10 m = 200 pm)
    Nucleus
     very dense
     protons (positively charged)
     neutrons (neutral)
     small (10-15 m)
    Electrons
     negatively charged
     located in space remindful of a cloud around nucleus
    THE NUCLEUS
     The atomic number (Z): number of protons in nucleus.
     The mass number (A): number of protons plus neutrons.
     All atoms of same element have the same Z value.
     Isotopes: atoms of the same element with different
    numbers of neutrons and thus different A.
    THE NUCLEUS
     The atomic mass (atomic weight) of an element is
    weighted average mass in atomic mass units (amu) of an
    element’s naturally occurring isotopes.
    ORBITALS
     Four different kinds of orbitals for
    electrons.
     Denoted s, p, d, and f
     s and p orbitals most important in organic
    and biological chemistry
     s orbitals: spherical, nucleus at center
     p orbitals: dumbbell-shaped, nucleus at
    middle
     d orbitals: four of the five d orbitals are
    cloverleaf-shaped and the fifth d orbital is
    shaped like an elongated dumbbell with a
    ORBITALS
     Orbitals are grouped in shells of increasing size and energy.
     Different shells contain different numbers and kinds of orbitals.
     Each orbital can be occupied by two electrons.
    ORBITALS
     First shell contains one s orbital, denoted 1s, holds only two electrons
     Second shell contains one s orbital (2s) and three p orbitals (2p), eight
    electrons
     Third shell contains an s orbital (3s), three p orbitals (3p), and five d
    orbitals (3d), 18 electrons
    ORBITALS
     In each shell there are three perpendicular p orbitals, px, py, and
    pz, of equal energy
     Lobes of a p orbital are separated by region of zero electron
    density, a node
    ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
     Ground-state electron configuration (i.e., lowest energy
    arrangement) of atom
     lists orbitals occupied by its electrons

    Rules:
    Rule 1. Lowest-energy orbitals fill first: 1s → 2s → 2p →
    3s → 3p → 4s → 3d (Aufbau (“build-up”) principle)
    ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
    Rule 2. Electrons act as if they were spinning around an
    axis. Electron spin can have only two orientations, up ↑
    and down ↓. Only two electrons can occupy an orbital, and
    they must be of opposite spin (Pauli exclusion principle)
    to have unique wave equations
    Rule 3. If two or more empty orbitals of equal energy are
    available, electrons occupy each with spins parallel until
    all orbitals have one electron (Hund's rule).
    ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
    ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
    Example:
    (a) Oxygen
    (b) Nitrogen
    (c) Sulfur
    (d) Magnesium
    (e) Cobalt
    (f) Selenium
    ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
    Example:
    (a) Oxygen = 1s² 2s² 2p⁴
    (b) Nitrogen = 1s² 2s² 2p3
    (c) Sulfur = 1s² 2s² 2p6 3s² 3p⁴
    (d) Magnesium = 1s² 2s² 2p6 3s²
    (e) Cobalt = 1s² 2s² 2p6 3s² 3p6 4s2 3d7
    (f) Selenium = 1s² 2s² 2p6 3s² 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p4
    DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMICAL
    BONDING THEORY
     Kekulé and Couper independently observed that carbon always has four bonds
     van't Hoff and Le Bel proposed that the four bonds of carbon have specific spatial
    directions
     Atoms surround carbon as corners of a tetrahedron
    DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMICAL
    BONDING THEORY
     Atoms form bonds because the resulting compound is
    more stable than the separate atoms.
     Organic compounds have covalent bonds from sharing
    electrons (G. N. Lewis, 1916).
     Covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the
    sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
     The valence electron of an atom is located in the
    outermost shell (valence shell) of the atom, that can be
    transferred to or shared with another atom.
    DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMICAL
    BONDING THEORY
     Lewis structures (electron dot) show valence electrons of
    an atom as dots
     Hydrogen has one dot, representing its 1s electron
     Carbon has four dots (2s2 2p2) due to 4 e- in valence shell
    DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMICAL
    BONDING THEORY
     Kekulé structures (line-bond structures) have a line
    drawn between two atoms indicating a 2 e- covalent bond.
     Stable molecule results at completed shell, octet (eight
    dots) for main-group atoms (two for hydrogen)
    DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMICAL
    BONDING THEORY
     The number of covalent bonds an atom forms depends
    on how many additional valence electrons it needs to
    reach a noble-gas configuration.
    NON-BONDING ELECTRONS
     Valence electrons not used in bonding are called non-
    bonding electrons or lone-pair electrons.
     Nitrogen atom in ammonia (NH3)
    - Shares six valence electrons in three covalent bonds and
    remaining two valence electrons are nonbonding lone pair.
    DESCRIBING CHEMICAL BONDS:
    VALENCE BOND THEORY
     Covalent bond forms when two atoms approach each
    other closely so that a singly occupied orbital on one atom
    overlaps a singly occupied orbital on the other atom
     Two models to describe covalent bonding.
     Valence bond theory
     Molecular orbital theory
    DESCRIBING CHEMICAL BONDS:
    VALENCE BOND THEORY
    Valence Bond Theory:
     Electrons are paired in the overlapping orbitals and are attracted
    to nuclei of both atoms
     H–H bond results from the overlap of two singly occupied
    hydrogen 1s orbitals
     H-H bond is cylindrically symmetrical, sigma (σ) bond
    DESCRIBING CHEMICAL BONDS:
    VALENCE BOND THEORY
     Reaction 2 H· → H2 releases 436 kJ/mol
     i.e., product has 436 kJ/mol less energy than two atoms: H–H has bond
    strength of 436 kJ/mol
    DRAWING CHEMICAL
    STRUCTURES
     Drawing every bond in organic molecule can become tedious.
     Several shorthand methods have been developed to write
    structures.
     Condensed structures don’t have C-H or C-C single bonds
    shown. They are understood.
    DRAWING CHEMICAL
    STRUCTURES
    General Rules:
    Rule 1. Carbon atoms aren’t usually shown.
    DRAWING CHEMICAL
    STRUCTURES
    Rule 2. Instead a carbon atom is assumed to be at each intersection
    of two lines (bonds) and at the end of each line.
    DRAWING CHEMICAL
    STRUCTURES
    Rule 3. Hydrogen atoms bonded to carbon aren’t shown.
    DRAWING CHEMICAL
    STRUCTURES
    Rule 4. Atoms other than carbon and hydrogen are shown.

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