Artificial Intelligence

Introduction

Artificial intelligence is a technology using which we

can create intelligent systems that can simulate human

intelligence.

The main applications of AI are Siri, customer support

using Chatbot, Expert System, Online game playing,

intelligent humanoid robot, etc.

Why Artificial Intelligence?

Following are some main reasons to learn about AI:

can create such software or devices which can solve real-

world problems very easily and with accuracy such as

health issues, marketing, traffic issues, etc.
can create your personal virtual Assistant, such as Cortana,

Google Assistant, Siri, etc.

can build such Robots which can work in an environment

where survival of humans can be at risk.

 What Comprises to Artificial Intelligence?
 Intelligence is an intangible part of our brain which is a
combination of Reasoning, learning, problem-solving
perception, language understanding, etc.
 To achieve the above factors for a machine or software Artificial
Intelligence requires the following discipline:
Mathematics
Biology
Psychology
Sociology
Computer Science
Neurons Study
Statistics
Types of Artificial Intelligence:
1. Weak AI or Narrow AI:
Narrow AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a dedicated
task with intelligence.
Narrow AI cannot perform beyond its field or limitations, as it is
only trained for one specific task.
Apple Siri is a good example of Narrow AI, but it operates with
a limited pre-defined range of functions.
IBM's Watson supercomputer also comes under Narrow AI, as it
uses an Expert system approach combined with Machine
learning and natural language processing.
Some Examples of Narrow AI are playing chess, purchasing
suggestions on e-commerce site, self-driving cars, speech
recognition, and image recognition.
2. General AI:
The idea behind the general AI to make such a system which
could be think like a human by its own.
Currently, there is no such system exist which could come
under general AI and can perform any task as perfect as a
human.
3. Super AI:
Super AI can perform any task better than human with cognitive
properties.
Some key characteristics of strong AI include capability include
the ability to think, to reason, solve the puzzle, make judgments,
plan, learn, and communicate by its own.
Super AI is still a hypothetical concept of Artificial
Intelligence. Development of such systems in real is still world
changing task.
Applications of AI
What is Artificial Intelligence ?

THOUGHT Systems that thinkSystems that think

like humans rationally

Systems that act Systems that act

BEHAVIOUR like humans rationally

HUMAN RATIONAL
Definitions of AI
Systems that think like humans Systems that think rationally
“The exciting new effort to make “The study of mental faculties through the
computers think . . . machines with use of computational models.”
minds, in the full and literal sense.” (Charniak and McDermott, 1985)
(Haugeland, 1985). “The study of the computations that make
“[The automation of] activities that we it possible to perceive, reason, and act.”
associate with human thinking, activities (Winston, 1992)
such as decision-making, problem
solving,learning . . .” (Bellman, 1978)

Systems that act like humans Systems that act rationally

“The art of creating machines that perform “Computational Intelligence is the study of
functions that require intelligence when the design of intelligent agents.” (Poole et
performed by people.” (Kurzweil, 1990) al., 1998)
“The study of how to make computers do “AI . . . is concerned with intelligent
things at which, at the moment, people behavior in artifacts.” (Nilsson, 1998)
are better.” (Rich and Knight, 1991)
 Acting humanly: The Turing Test approach

 The Turing Test, proposed by Alan Turing (1950), was designed to

provide a satisfactory operational definition of intelligence.

 A computer passes the test if a human interrogator, after posing

some written questions, cannot tell whether the written responses

come from a person or from a computer.
 The Turing Test approach
The computer would need to possess the following capabilities:

• Natural language processing to enable it to communicate

successfully in English
• Knowledge representation to store what it knows or hears;
• Automated reasoning to use the stored information to answer
questions and to draw new conclusions.
• Machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to detect
and extrapolate patterns.
• Computer vision to perceive objects.
• Robotics to manipulate objects and move about.
 Systems that think like humans:
The cognitive modeling approach
Determining how humans think
 There are three ways to do this: introspection and
psychological experiments
Focus is not just on behavior and I/O, but looks like reasoning
process.
Goal is not just to produce human-like behavior but to produce
a sequence of steps of the reasoning process, similar to the steps
followed by a human in solving the same task.
Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary, scientific study of
the mind and its processes.
cognitive science brings together computer models from AI and
experimental techniques from psychology to construct precise
and testable theories of the human mind.
 Thinking rationally: The “laws of thought”
approach
 The Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of the first to attempt to
codify “right thinking,” that is, irrefutable reasoning processes. It is
called syllogisms.
 His syllogisms provided patterns for argument structures that always
yielded correct conclusions when given correct premises.
 for example
 “Socrates is a man;
 all men are mortal;
 therefore, Socrates is mortal.”
 These laws of thought were supposed to govern the operation of the
mind; their study initiated the field called logic.
 Logicians in the 19th century developed a precise notation for
statements about all kinds of objects in the world and the relations
among them
 Acting rationally: The rational agent approach
An agent is just something that acts.
Computer agents are expected to do more: operate autonomously,
perceive their environment, persist over a prolonged time period,
adapt to change, and create and pursue goals.
A rational agent is one that acts so as to achieve the best outcome.
In the “laws of thought” approach to AI, the emphasis was on
correct inferences.
Making correct inferences is sometimes part of being a rational
agent.
All the skills needed for the Turing Test also allow an agent to act
rationally.
Knowledge representation and reasoning enable agents to reach
good decisions
The Foundation of AI
This section provides a brief history of the disciplines that
contributed ideas, viewpoints, and techniques to AI.

Philosophy
Mathematics
Economics
Neuroscience
Psychology
Computer engineering
Control theory and cybernetics
Linguistics
 The Foundation of AI
Philosophy-It explores AI and its implications for knowledge
and understanding of intelligence, ethics, Consciousness.
The philosophy of AI attempts to answer such questions
as follows.
Can formal rules be used to draw valid conclusions?
How does the mental mind arise from a physical brain?
Where does knowledge come from?
How does knowledge lead to action?
 The Foundation of AI
Philosophy
Important propositions in the philosophy of AI include some of the
following:
 Aristotle He developed syllogisms for proper reasoning, it generates
conclusions mechanically, given initial premises.
 Thomas Hobbes proposed that reasoning was like numerical
computation that “we add and subtract in our silent thoughts.”
 Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) designed but did not build a
mechanical calculator; recent reconstructions have shown the design
to be functional
  Turing's "polite convention": If a machine behaves as intelligently as
a human being, then it is as intelligent as a human being.
 Allen Newell and Herbert A. developed GPS.
 The Foundation of AI
Mathematics
What are the formal rules to draw valid conclusions?
What can be computed?
How do we reason with uncertain information?
Mathematics formalizes the three main areas of AI:
computation, logic, and probability
Mathematicians provided the tools to manipulate
statements of logical certainty as well as uncertain,
probabilistic statements.
 They also set the groundwork for understanding
computation and reasoning about algorithms.
 The Foundation of AI
 Psychology - is the science of mind and behavior.
How do humans think and act?
The study of human reasoning and acting
Provides reasoning models for AI
 humans and animals can be considered as information processing
machines.
 The Foundation of AI
 Computer Engineering
How to build an efficient computer?
Provides the artifact that makes AI application possible
The power of computer makes computation of large and difficult
problems more easily.
AI has also contributed its own work to computer science,
including: time-sharing, the linked list data type, OOP, etc.
The first operational computer was the electro mechanical Heath
Robinson, built in 1940 by Alan Turing’s team.
The first operational programmable computer was the Z-3, the
invention of Konrad Zuse in Germany in 1941.
In each generation of computer hardware has brought an increase in
speed and capacity and a decrease in price.
The Foundation of AI

Linguistics
For understanding natural languages
 different approaches has been adopted from the linguistic work
Formal languages
Syntactic and semantic analysis
Knowledge representation
The Foundation of AI

Economics
How should we make decisions so as to maximize payoff?
How should we do this when others may not go along?
How should we do this when the payoff may be far in the
future?

Economists formalized the problem of making

decisions that maximize the expected outcome to the
decision-maker.
 The Foundation of AI
 Control theory and Cybernetics
How can artifacts operate under their own control?
 Cybernetics is the science of human-machine interaction that employs
the principles feedback, control and communication.
 Cybernetics focuses on how a system processes information, responds
to changes for better functioning.
 Control theory deals with designing devices that act optimally on the
basis of feedback from the environment.
History of Artificial Intelligence
 History of Artificial Intelligence
The gestation of artificial intelligence (1943–1955)
The first work that is now generally recognized as AI was
done by Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts (1943),based on
three sources: knowledge of the basic physiology and function
of neurons in the brain.
a formal analysis of propositional logic due to Russell and
Whitehead; and Turing’s theory of computation, They
proposed a model of artificial neurons.
Donald Hebb (1949) demonstrated a simple updating rule for
modifying the connection strengths between neurons, called
Hebbian learning.
Harvard, Marvin Minsky and Dean Edmonds, built the first
neural network computer in 1950.
 History of Artificial Intelligence
The birth of artificial intelligence (1956)
McCarthy convinced Minsky, Claude Shannon, and Nathaniel
Rochester organized a two-month workshop at Dartmouth in
1956.
Early enthusiasm, great expectations (1952–1969)
Newell and Simon’s early success was followed up with the
General Problem Solver, or GPS.
At IBM, Nathaniel Rochester and his colleagues produced some
of the first AI programs.
Herbert Gelernter (1959) constructed the Geometry Theorem
Prover, which was able to prove theorems .
In 1963, McCarthy started the AI lab at Stanford. His plan to use
logic to build the ultimate Advice Taker,first-order logic.
James Slagle’s SAINT program (1963) was able to solve closed-
form calculus integration problems.
 History of Artificial Intelligence
A dose of reality (1966–1973)
 the new back-propagation learning algorithms for multilayer networks
that were to cause an enormous resurgence in neural-net research in the
late 1980s were actually discovered first in 1969.
 The history of AI has had cycles of success, misplaced optimism, and
resulting cutbacks in enthusiasm and funding.
 There have also been cycles of introducing new creative approaches and
systematically refining the best ones.
Knowledge-based systems: (1969–1979)
 The DENDRAL program (Buchanan et al., 1969) was developed at
Stanford, to solve the problem of inferring molecular structure from the
information provided by a mass spectrometer.
 expert systems could be applied in the area of medical diagnosis.
 A large number of different representation and reasoning languages were
developed. Some were based on logic
 History of Artificial Intelligence
AI becomes an industry (1980–present)
 The first successful commercial expert system, R1, began operation
at the Digital Equipment Corporation (McDermott, 1982). The
program helped configure orders for new computer systems by 1986.
 In 1981, the Japanese announced the “Fifth Generation” project, a 10-
year plan to build intelligent computers running Prolog.
 Soon after that came a period called the “AIWinter,” in which many
companies fell by the wayside as they failed to deliver on extravagant
promises.
The return of neural networks (1986–present)
 In the mid-1980s at least four different groups reinvented the back-
propagation learning algorithm first found in 1969 by Bryson and Ho.
 These connectionist models of intelligent systems were seen by some
as direct competitors both to the symbolic models promoted by
Newell and Simon and to the logicist approach of McCarthy and
others (Smolensky, 1988).
 History of Artificial Intelligence
AI adopts the scientific method (1987–present)
HiddenMarkov models (HMMs)-HMMs provide a mathematical
framework for understanding the problem and support the
engineering claim that they work well in practice.
Data mining
Bayesian network
The availability of very large data sets (2001–present)
recent work in AI suggests that for many problems, it makes more
sense to worry about the data and be less picky about what
algorithm to apply. This is true because of the increasing
availability of very large data sources
 The State of the Art
What can AI do today?
A concise answer is difficult because there are so many activities in so
many subfields.
Robotic vehicles:
A driverless robotic car named STANLEY (2005 ).STANLEY is
outfitted with cameras, radar, and laser range finders to sense the
environment and onboard software to command the steering,
braking, and acceleration.
Speech recognition:
A traveler calling United Airlines to book a flight can have the
entire conversation guided by an automated speech recognition
and dialog management system.
AI in Astronomy
 Artificial Intelligence can be very useful to solve complex
universe problems.
 AI technology can be helpful for understanding the universe such
as how it works, origin, etc.

AI in Healthcare
 Healthcare Industries are applying AI to make a better and faster
diagnosis than humans.

AI in Finance
 The finance industry is implementing automation, chatbot,
adaptive intelligence, algorithm trading, and machine learning
into financial processes.
AI in Data Security
 The security of data is crucial for every company and cyber-
attacks are growing very rapidly in the digital world.
 AI can be used to make your data more safe and secure.
 Some examples such as AEG bot, AI2 Platform, are used to
determine software bug and cyber-attacks in a better way.
AI in Automotive Industry
 Some Automotive industries are using AI to provide virtual
assistant to their user for better performance. Such as Tesla has
introduced TeslaBot, an intelligent virtual assistant.
 Various Industries are currently working for developing self-
driven cars which can make your journey more safe and secure.
Autonomous planning and scheduling :
 A hundred million miles from Earth, NASA’s Remote Agent
Program became the first on-board autonomous planning
program. It control the scheduling of operations for a spacecraft .
 It is monitored the operation of the spacecraft as the plans were
executed-detecting, diagnosing, and recovering from problems as
they occurred.

 Game playing
 IBM’s Deep Blue became the first computer program to defeat the
world champion in a chess match.
Autonomous control
 The ALVINN computer vision system was trained to steer a
car to keep it following a lane.
 It has Video cameras that transmit road images to ALVINN,
which then computes the best direction to steer, based on
experience from previous training runs.
Robotics
 Many surgeons now use robot assistants in microsurgery.
 Computer vision techniques are used to create a three-
dimensional model of a patient’s internal anatomy and then
uses robotic control to guide the insertion of a hip replacement
.
Language understanding and problem solving
 PROVERB is a computer program that solves crossword puzzles
better than most humans, using constraints on possible word
fillers, a large database of past puzzles, and a variety of
information sources including dictionaries and online databases
such as a list of movies and the actors that appear in them.
Logistics planning:
AI is becoming highly demanding for Logistics planning.
AI is capable of doing various travel related works such as from
making travel arrangement to suggesting the hotels, flights, and
best routes to the customers.
Travel industries are using AI-powered chatbots which can
make human-like interaction with customers for better and fast
response.