CONSTRUCTION

TECHNOLOGY II

BY
ESTHER NJOKI

LESSON ONE
 Course Outline
 Walls: Stone, brick and block walls, cavity
walls, damp proof courses and mortars
 Arches and openings
 Windows: types, glass and glazing
 Doors: types and functions
 Roofs: pitched and flat roofs, roof coverings,
dormer windows, Rooflights
 Sound insulation: roofs
 Framed construction: reinforced concrete
framed structures, precast concrete frames
 Formwork

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 Course Outline – cont’d
 Prestressed concrete structural steelwork
connections, structural steelwork
connections, portal frames
 Cladding to external walls: structural glazing,
concrete cladding, curtain walling
 Construction plant: bulldozers, scrapers,
graders, tractor shovels, excavators, transport
vehicles, hoists, rubble chutes and skips,
cranes and concreting plant

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 Reference
1. Roy Chudley, (2015). Advanced Construction
Technology, 5th edition. Trans-Atlantic
Publications. ISBN-13: 978-0435046835
2. Edward Allen, and Joseph Iano, (2013),
Fundamentals of Building Construction:
Materials and Methods 6th Edition. Wiley.
ISBN-13: 978-1118138915

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Walls

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 STONEWORK
 Stones used in building can be divided into three
classes as follows:
 Igneous
 Sedimentary
 Metamorphic

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 Igneous stones
 The igneous stone principally used in building is
granite, which was formed from the fusion of
minerals under great heat below the earth’s
surface many thousands of years ago.
 They are hard, durable and capable of a fine
polished finish

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 Granite
 These are the hardest types of stones and difficult to
work with.
 They are available in various colors
 These are used for the construction of steps, floors,
walls, sills, counter tops and as facing over other
masonry.

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 Sedimentary stones
 These are formed gradually over thousands of years
from particle of calcium carbonate or sand
deposited by settlement in layers in bodies of
water.
 These layers of lime or sand particles became
compacted by the water or earth above them.
 Example: Sandstone and limestone

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 Sandstone
 These are sedimentary rocks consisting of sand or
quartz grains cemented together.
 They are typically red, yellow, or brown in colour.
 They can be worked easily to take any ornamental
shape.
 Colored sandstones are used in the face work of
building to give architectural treatment.
 They are used for walls, columns, facing, steps,
flooring, etc.

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Sedimentary stones – cont’d
Sandstone

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Sandstone – cont’d

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 Limestone
 A hard sedimentary rock, composed mainly of
calcium carbonate or dolomite, used as building
material and in the making of cement.
 They are available in various colors and easy to
work with.
 They are used for walls, floors, steps, etc.

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Sedimentary stones – cont’d

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 Metamorphic stones
 Those that have been changed from
igneous or sedimentary stone or from
earth into metamorphic stone by pressure,
or heat, or both in the earth’s crust.
 Examples:
 Marble which was formed from limestone
 Slate and shale formed from clay

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 Marble
 Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of
recrystallized carbonate minerals, most
commonly calcite or dolomite.
 They are very useful material for flooring and
monumental structures.
 Marble are available in various colors and give
a very good polish.

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Marble – cont’d

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 Slate
 Is a fine-grained, foliated, homogeneous
metamorphic rock derived from an original
shale-type sedimentary rock composed of clay
or volcanic ash.
 It is the finest grained foliated metamorphic
rock.
 Foliation in geology refers to repetitive layering
in metamorphic rocks.
 Generally they have a black color.
 Slates can be split in thin sheets along their
bedding planes.
 They mostly used for roofing work.
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Slates – cont’d

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 Reconstructed stone
 Also known as reconstituted or cast stone.
 These are factory manufactured by casting
natural stone aggregates of 15 mm maximum
size with white or coloured cement into moulds
of a specific dimensions.
 The usual ratio is 3 to 4 parts of aggregate to 1
part cement.
 These defect free blocks produced under
quality controlled conditions are an economical
substitute for natural stone.

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 Reconstructed stone – cont’d
 Block sizes can vary to suit specific
applications, but colour and texture are
uniform.
 It is homogenous throughout and therefore has
the same texture and colour as the natural
stones they are intended to substitute

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Reconstructed stone

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 Types of stone masonry
 Masonry can be classified according to the
thickness of joints, continuity of courses and finish
of face.
 There are two types of stone masonry:
 Ashlarmasonry
 Rubble masonry

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 Ashlar stone masonry
 Ashlar masonry is a type of stone construction
where all stones are dressed or cut to a uniform
shape, size and surface appearance.
 They are then laid in horizontal courses, or layers,
with narrow mortar joints.

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 Rubble stone masonry
 Are walls constructed of stones used either in a
random rough or uneven form as extracted from
the quarry, or roughly dressed to a square or
rectangular shape.
 Walls of this type are common in rural areas,
particularly those close to quarry locations.
 Stones are laid with a relatively thick bed joint of
mortar to accommodate irregularities.
 The masonry has wide joints since stones of
irregular size are used

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 Rubble stone masonry – cont’d
 Rubble stone masonry may be categorized as:
 Random rubble:
 Uncoursed
 Coursed
 Squared rubble:
 Uncoursed
 Coursed
 Built to regular courses

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Random rubble uncoursed
It is the roughest and the cheapest form of
stonewalling.
Since stones are not of uniform shape and
size, they are arranged with great care so as
to distribute pressure over the maximum area
and at the same time avoid long vertical
joints.

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Random rubble uncoursed

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 Random rubble coursed
Itis similar to un-coursed except that the work is
roughly leveled up to form courses 30 to 45 cm thick.

Uncoursed Coursed

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Random rubble coursed

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Squared rubble stone masonry
 Squared rubble:
 Uncoursed - Stones having straight beds and sides are
arranged in an irregular pattern to give a good
appearance and avoid the formation of long, continuous
joints.

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Squared rubble stone masonry
 Squared rubble:
 Coursed - Stones having straight bed and sides are
leveled up to form courses of varying depth.

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Squared rubble stone masonry
 Squared rubble:
 Built
to regular courses - Stones having straight beds
and sides are leveled up to form courses of varying
depth but the height of stones in each course is the
same.

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 CUTTING AND DRESSING OF
STONES
 After quarrying large pieces of stones, it is
essential to break them into smaller sizes so
that they can be used in a building.
 Dressing of stones is the process of giving a
proper size, shape, and finish to the roughly
broken stone as obtained from the quarry.
 Various types of finishes and the methods of
dressing and cutting the stones to get the
desired surfaces include:

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 Cutting and dressing of stones –
cont’d
 Scrabbling: Irregular edges of the stones are
broken off and the stone is shaped somewhat.

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 Cutting and dressing of stones –
cont’d
 Hammer dressed: Large raised portions of the
stones are cut and the stone is made somewhat flat
but rough due to hammer marks.

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 Cutting and dressing of stones –
cont’d
 Boasted or droved finish: The stone is cut to a
little level face and is finished by means of a
bolster.

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 Cutting and dressing of stones –
cont’d
 Tooled finish: In this case the chisel marks are
continuous and parallel throughout the width of
stone.

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 Cutting and dressing of stones –
cont’d
 Furrowed finish: In this case about 1 cm vertical
or horizontal grooves are sunk with a chisel having
its end shaped as a hollow semi-circle.

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 Cutting and dressing of stones –
cont’d
 Reticulated finish: In this type of work, irregular
shaped sinking is made within the center portion of
the stone having a 2 cm wide margin on its sides.

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 Cutting and dressing of stones –
cont’d
 Vermiculated finish: The sinking is of the
reticulated type except that they are more curved
and give a worm eaten type of appearance.

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 Cutting and dressing of stones –
cont’d
 Combed or dragged finish: This type of finish is
done on soft stones. A comb is driven over the
surface of this stone to remove all elevating
portions

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 Cutting and dressing of stones –
cont’d
 Punched finish: Depressions are formed on the
rough surface with a punch.

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 Cutting and dressing of stones –
cont’d
 Picked finish: This type of finish is obtained by
dressing stones with a point and the depressions
are smaller than the above type.

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 Cutting and dressing of stones –
cont’d
 Chisel drafted margins: They give a better
appearance and help in getting uniform joints.

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 Cutting and dressing of stones –
cont’d
 Moulded finish: Mouldings of various types can be
worked on the stones to improve their appearance.

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 Cutting and dressing of stones –
cont’d
 Rubbed finish: The surfaces of the stones are
rubbed get a smoother surface finish.

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 Cutting and dressing of stones –
cont’d
 Polished finish: Stones which can take polish, e.g.,
granites, marbles, lime-stones are first rubbed to a
smooth surface and then polished by using rubber
and pad, sand and water, pumice, and putty
powder.

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 Cutting and dressing of stones –
cont’d
 Sand Blasting: This is done to imprint letterings
and designs on the surface of granites.

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Cutting and dressing of stones –
cont’d

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Cutting and dressing of stones –
cont’d

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 General principles to be followed in
the construction of stone masonry
1. The stone used shall be hard, durable and tough
and should be laid on its natural bed (plane of
stratification in sedimentary stones).
2. The pressure acting on the stones should not act
parallel to the bedding planes. This will try to split
the stones.

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General principles to be followed in
the construction of stone masonry
3. All laid fine dressed stone work should be
protected against damage during further
construction by means of wooden boxes.
4. All the surfaces should be kept wet while the work
is in progress and also till the mortar has set.
5. Double scaffolding will be
used wherever it is difficult
to fit in the stones later on.

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General principles to be followed in
the construction of stone masonry
6.All the portions of the masonry should be raised
uniformly. Wherever this is not possible, the stone
work built earlier should be raked (stepped) so that
the new work can be bonded well with the old.

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General principles to be followed in
the construction of stone masonry
7. The hearting of the masonry should be properly
packed with mortar and chips, if necessary, to avoid
any hollows or very thick mortar joints.

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 General principles to be followed in
the construction of stone masonry
8.Vertical faces of the masonry walls should be
checked with a plumb rule and the battered faces
should be tested with wooden template
corresponding to the batter and a plumb rule to
ensure a constant batter.
 Batter in construction is a receding slope of a wall
structure, or earthwork

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General principles to be followed in
the construction of stone masonry

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General principles to be followed in
the construction of stone masonry
9.The stones used in the masonry should be wetted
before use to avoid moisture being sucked from the
mortar.
10.Masonry should not be allowed to take tension.

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 JOINTS AND POINTING
 Joints are mortar layers between stones
 Horizontal joints are called bed joints
 Vertical joints are called head joints

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 Joints and pointing – cont’d
 In rubble masonry, joints are neither uniform in
thickness nor constant in direction
 Large spaces in may have small pieces of stone
called spalls embedded in the mortar

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 Joints and pointing – cont’d
 In squared-stone masonry, joints are horizontal and
vertical and are uniform in thickness
 The joints are ½ to 1 in. thick

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 Joints and pointing – cont’d
 In ashlar or cut-stone masonry, the stones are
accurately dressed to shape so that the joints do
not exceed ½ in. in thickness

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 Joints and pointing – cont’d
 The appearance of a building can be significantly
influenced by the mortar finishing treatment to
masonry. Finishing may be achieved by jointing or
pointing.
 Jointing - the finish applied to mortar joints as the
work proceeds.
 Pointing - the process of removing semi-set mortar
to a depth of about 20mm and replacing it with
fresh mortar. Pointing may contain a colouring
pigment to further enhance the masonry.

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Joints and pointing – cont’d

Types of
pointing

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Joints and pointing – cont’d

Types of
jointing

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 Joints and pointing – cont’d

Jointing tool

V-joint tool
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Joints and pointing – cont’d

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