Transducer

Piezoelectric Transducers
• V = Sound velocity in the material
• D = Diameter of the transducer
• F= Frequency of the transducer
• Teta = Beam divergence angle from
centerline to point where signal is at half
strength
Transducer Beam spread
Radiated fields of UT transducers
• Advantages of UT
1. It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface
discontinuities.
2. The depth of penetration for flaw detection or
measurement is superior to other NDT method
3. Only single-sided access is needed when the
pulse-echo technique is used
4. Minimal part preparation is required
5. Electronic equipment provides instantaneous
results
6. Detailed images can be produced with
automated systems
7. It has other uses such as thickness
measurements, in addition to flaw detection
• Limitation of UT
• Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound
• Skill and training is more extensive than with come other
method
• It normally require a coupling medium to promote transfer of
sound energy into test specimen
• Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small,
exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to
inspect
• Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to
inspect due to low sound transmission and high signal noise
• Linear defects oriented parallel to sound beam may go
undetected
• Reference standards are required for both equipment
calibration and characterization of flaws.
• Plotting of DAC curve
• Measure the thickness of the sample that is to be tested
• Find out ½ beam path for the selected probe
• Find out full beam path for the selected probe
• calculate the range
• set the range in the instrument
• select the reflectors in the reference block
• select three reflectors in the reference block
• Focus the probe against the nearest reflector in the specimen
• Apply couplent and maximize the echo by moving the probe forward,
backward and sides
• Set the height of the echo to 80%of screen height. Mark the echo peak point
• Note the DB reading
• without disturbing equipment knobs focus the probe against the second
reflector
• By moving the probe, Maximize the echo. Mark the Peak point of the echo
• without disturbing the equipment knobs. Keep the probe against 3rd reflector
• By moving probe, Maximize the echo, Mark the peak point of the echo
• connect the points, it provides DAC
• Testing the weld sample
• Clean both side of the weld face to a distance not less than full skip
distance
• The cleaned surface is free from spatters/ scale /other particles
• Mark the centre of the weld
• Mark the half skip and full skip distance
• Add 6 db as a scanning db to the attenuator
• Scan the surface with angle probe against the weld
• Any echo is found before and after Half beam path immediately stop
the probe, mark the location of Probe and analyze the indication
• verify whether it is crossing the DAC
• If the indication is crossing DAC level, the indication is investigated
• If the indication is lower the than the DAC level the indication is
smaller than the side drilled hole of the reference block, The
indication is acceptable if the indication height is less than the DAC
level
AMPLITUDE
The vertical Pulse height of signal, usually
base to peak, when indicated by an A-SCAN
Presentation
Angle beam
A wave train traveling at an angle, measured
from the normal to the examination surface
to the centerline of the beam
A SCAN
A method of data presentation on a CRT
utilizing a horizontal base line that indicates
distance or time and a vertical deflection
from the base line which indicates amplitude
ATTENUATION
Loss of energy per unit distance
Attenuator
A device for measuring attenuation, it is usually
calibrated in Decibels
Back reflection
Indication of the echo from the far boundary of the
material under examination
BEAM SPREAD
The divergence of the sound beam as it travels
through material
BOTTOM ECHO
Back reflection
BUBBLER
A device using liquid stream to couple an
ultrasonic beam to the examination
GATE
An electronic means to monitor a selected
segment of the distance traces
IMMERSION EXAMINATION
A method where the search unit and the
material are submerged in water
IMPEDANCE Acoustic)
A mathematical quantity used in computation
of reflection characteristics at boundaries
It is product of wave velocity and material
density
INDICATION
Denotes Presence of reflector
INITIAL PULSE
Response of the display unit to transmitted
Pulse
INTERFACE
The boundary between two materials
LAMB WAVE
A type of wave that propagates within the
thickness of a plate and that can only be
generated at particular values of angle of
incidence, and plate thickness. The velocity
of wave is dependent on the mode and the
product of plate thickness and frequency
DAC
Swept gain, time corrected gain time
variable gain etc. electronic change of
amplification to provide equal amplitude
from equal reflector from different depths
TWIN PROBE
A Probe containing two elements one
transmitter and the other a receiver
ECHO
Indication of reflected energy
FAR FIELD
The zone of the beam where equal reflectors give
exponentially decreasing amplitudes with
increasing distance
FOCUSED BEAM
Converging energy of the sound beam at a
specified distance
• FREQUENCY(FUNDAMENTAL)
In response examination , the frequency at
which the wave length is twice the thickness
of the part
FREQUENCY (pulse repetition)
Number of pulses per second
PULSE LENGTH
A measure of duration of a wave train, expressed
in time or number of cycles.
RF( Radio frequency presentation)
A Signal display that is not rectified
RANGE(SWEEP DISTANCE)
The maximum ultrasonic path length that can
be displayed
RAYLEIGH WAVE
A surface wave in which the particle motion
is elliptical and the effective penetration is
less than one wave length
REFLECTOR
An interface at which an ultrasonic beam
encounters a change in characteristic
impedance and reflects
REFRACTION
The angular change in direction of the ultrasonic
beam as it passes obliquely from one medium to
another, in which the waves have a different
velocity
REJECT(SUPRERSSION)
A control for minimizing or eliminating low
amplitude signals (electrical or material noise) so
that larger signals are emphasized
RESOLUTION
The ability of the ultrasonic equipment to give
simultaneous, separate indication from
discontinuities having nearly the same range and
lateral position with respect to the beam axis
LONGITUDINAL WAVE
Those waves in which the particle motion of
the material is essentially in the same
direction as the wave propagation
MODE OF VIBRATION
Type of wave motion eg. Longitudinal,
transverse etc
Multiple reflections
Successive echoes of ultrasonic energy
between two surfaces
NEAR FIELD
The region of the ultrasonic beam adjacent
to the transducer and having complex beam
profiles also known as the Fresnel zone
NOICE
Any undesired signal that tends to interfere
with the normal reception or processing of
the desired signal origin may be electrical or
from small material reflectors
PENETRATION
The maximum depth in a material from
which indications can be measured
PULSE
A short wave t4rain of mechanical vibration
SKIP DISTANCE
In angle beam examination the distance on the
examination surface from the sound entry point to
the first reflection point
STRAIGHT BEAM
A vibrating pulse wave train traveling normal
to the examination surface
SWEEP
The uniform and repeated movement of an
electron beam across the CRT Through
transmission
An examination procedure in which the
ultrasonic vibration are emitted by one
search unit and received by another at the
opposite surface of the material examined
RESONANCE METHOD
A technique that varies the frequency of
continuous ultrasonic waves to excite a maximum

amplitude of vibrations in a body generally for

thickness measurement
RINGING TIME
The time taken that the mechanical vibrations of a
crystal continue after the electrical pulses has
stopped
SENSITIVITY
The ability of the ultrasonic system to detect
a very small discontinuities
SHEAR WAVE
Wave motion in which the particle motion is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation
DECIBEL
A unit which compares levels of power.
DELAY CONTROL
Sub circuit of sweep generator that allows
variably adjustable time period from the
sending of the trigger pulse in the start of the
sweep across the CRT
COUPLANT
A material (usually liquid) used between the
transducer and the test specimen to
eliminate air from this space and thus insure
the passage of sound wave into and out of
the specimen
CLOCK INTERVAL
The period of the clock ie the amount of time
elapsing between each pulse of the clock
AMPLIFIER
An electric device which increases the
strength of a signal fed into it, by obtaining
power from a source other than the input
signal
DAMPING MATERIAL
Any gel, rubber like substance or other material
which when used in the transducer result in a
shorter ringing time of the piezoelectric crystal.
MODE CONVERSION
The changing of a portion of a sound beam energy
into a wave of the opposite mode due to reflection
and or refraction at incident angles other than zero
degree.
• NEAR FIELD
That portion of the sound beam directly in
front of the crystal where interference effects
( constructive and destructive ) can occur.
Oscillator
A device that can produce vibrational waves
in a medium
DUEL ELEMENT PROBE
• A probe containing two piezoelectric crystals,
one of which only transmits and one of which
only receives
BACK ECHO OR BACKWALL ECHO
• The echo representing the side of the specimen
opposite the side to which the transducer is
coupled. This echo represents the thickness of
the specimen at the point.
BEAM INDEX POINT
• The point on the base of an angle beam
probe wedge from which the sound leaves
the wedge and enters the specimen
• FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE
• The minimum incident angle in the wedge
at which the refracted longitudinal wave is
eliminated from the test specimen
GAIN
A term used in electronics with reference to an
increase in signal power usually expressed as the
ratio of the output power (for example an amplifier)
to the input power in decibels.
FAR FIELD
The portion of the sound beam where interference
effects cease to exist
WAVE LENGTH
The distance between like points on successive wave
fronts ie. the distance between any two successive
particles of the oscillating medium that are in the same
phase
REFRACTION
The bending of a sound beam when it passes through an
acoustic interface at an incident angle other than zero
degrees. The bending is caused by the difference in wave
speed on either side of the interface. Thus, the refraction is
accompanied by a change in wavelength.
REFRACTION ANGLE
The angel between a refracted sound beam and
the perpendicular.
REJECT
Reject or suppression affects the input sensitivity
of the amplifier in the receiver. Gross or metal
noise can be reduced or eliminated from the CRT
screen by its use. On most instruments it also
destroys the vertical linearity relation ship between
echo heights.
SECOND CRITICAL ANGLE
The minimum incident angle in the wedge at which
the refracted shear wave leaves the body of the
test specimen
PENETRATION
The ability of the test system to overcome material
loss attenuation ie. the ability of the sound beam to
by pass small reflectors such as grain boundaries
and porosity in the specimen
REFERNCE LINE
A predetermined horizontal line (usually
dictated by specification) on the CRT screen
representing some percentage of total
screen height(eg.40%) at which reference
echoes and indications echoes are
compared.
• Sound is a vibration (back &forth
movement) of energy in motion
• Vibration/ oscillation : seen by displacing
the pendulum of a clock from rest position
• Frequency : number of cycle per second
• Velocity :speed of particle in a medium,
depends on density &elastic properties of
a medium
• Longitudinal wave : particle motion is in
same or propagation of the wave
• Transverse wave : Particle motion is
transverse/perpendicular to the
propagation of the wave
• Surface wave : Particle motion is elliptical
to the propagation of the wave
• Plate wave : Propagate with in the
thickness of the thin plate
• Acoustic impedance : is used to for finding
reflection and transmission energy leaves
at the boundaries Z = pxv
• Piezo : Greek word means to press
mechanical vibration (pressure) given to
crystal, it generate alternating electric
voltage vis versa
• When alternate electric voltage given to
crystal is called transmitter
• Clock generator (synchronizer): to
coordinate operation of the entire
ultrasonic system
• Transmitter (pulser/sender) : generate
burst of energy to activate sending or
transmitting transducer and also provides
a reference indication on display unit
through receiver/amplifier
• Receiver (amplifier) : modifies the
returning signal from receiving traducer in
to a form suitable for display on CRT
(Indicator)
• Sweep generator : This makes the
electrons in the indicator unit to (Sweep)
from left to right at a fixed speed forming a
sweep line. As it represents a time, it is
also known as time base.
• Pulse repetition frequency (PRF) : PRF should
be in small when the travel time is larger. Ie
there should be more gap between successive
pulses. This is adjusted automatically with
change of range control.
• Gain/Attenuator/ sensitivity : coarse and fine
controls are used for increasing or decreasing
the height of the echoes/pipes.it is also used to
adjust number of back echoes when porbe is
placed on the calibration block through proper
couplant.
• At higher frequencies – to control near field smaller crystal are used
• At lower frequencies to control the beam spread larger size probes
are used.
• Cross talk echo : acoustic energy from transmitter travels to receiver
through acrostic barrier causing small indication near ‘o. this
interference echo is designated as cross – talk echo. It is at a fixed
point, hence the detect ability of near surface reflector is not
affected. The roof angle of (slight inclination of two crystal towards
each other) causes a refraction and splitting of the ultrasonic waves
at the interface of plastic to steel. Thus several interference echoes
appear after the first back wall echo. All these interference echo
always occur behind the 1st BWE. Since the velocity of the
transverse wave is smaller than the of long wave, we do not use
multiple echo's from one calibration block. instead first BWE from
two different thickness are chosen for purpose of calibration. Instead
having two separate blocks, we use stepped wedge having 10 steps
from 1 mm to 10 mm in one mm incteament.
Longitudinal and Shear waves
 Types of sound waves
Wave Types in Solids Particle Vibrations

Longitudinal Parallel to wave direction

Transverse (Shear) Perpendicular to wave direction

Surface - Rayleigh Elliptical orbit - symmetrical mode

Plate Wave - Lamb Component perpendicular to surface

(extensional wave)
Plate Wave - Love Parallel to plane layer, perpendicular to wave
direction
Stoneley (Leaky Rayleigh Wave guided along interface
Waves)
Sezawa Antisymmetric mode
 .

                                                                                                   
• Asymmetric Symmetric
Reflection and transmission of
sound
Snell’s law

                                         
Where:
VL1 is the longitudinal
wave velocity in material
VL2 is the longitudinal
wave velocity in material
 
 Snell’s law

 
Where:
                                                                                      
   VL1 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 1.
   VL2 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 2.
   VS1 is the shear wave velocity in material 1.
   VS2 is the shear wave velocity in material 2.
Attenuation of sound
• Pulse receivers are used for flaw detection
and thickness gauging in wide variety of
materials.
• Pulse length or damping – The amount of
time the pulse is applied
• Pulse energy : The voltage applied to the
Transducer
• Signal rectification : RF signal can be
viewed as positive half wave, negative half
wave or full wave
• Gain or signal amplification
• Reject control
• Contact method
A- scan presentation
B- Scan presentation
C-Scan presentation
• Angle beam transducers
Dual element transducers
Cylindrical /spherical Focus
transducers
Attenuation measurements
Calibration Blocks
V1 and V2 Blocks
AWS resolution Block
Step and tapered wedge
Distance/ Area amplitude blocks
Weld inspection
Weld inspection
Pulser / Receiver
Distance Amplitude Correction
curve
UT TRIGONOMETERIC
FORMULAS