PSY 403 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

AND TESTING
 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST?

• A test is a measurement device that quantifies behaviour (Kaplan

&Saccuzzo, 193).

• In general terms, a test is a device that is used to quantify

observations made by the tester.

• A test is used in the physical sciences, agricultural sciences,

biological sciences, medicine and behavioural sciences.

• Psychology, being the science that studies human and animal

behaviour, relies much in the use of test for its studies.

• Therefore, a psychological test is a measurement device designed to

quantify the behaviour of human beings and animals.
• Anastasi and Urbina (1997) define a psychological test as an objective
and standardized measure of a sample of behviour.
• By this definition, for a measuring instrument to be labeled a
Psychological test, it must be:
 objective,
 standardized, and
 should measure a sample of behaviour.

• A psychological test is an instrument that indicates how much a

participant has of the quality the test is designed to measure.
• The word “test” refers to any means used to elicit responses to which
human behaviour in other contexts can be related.
When intended to predict relatively distant future behaviour (e.g.,
success in school), such a device is called an aptitude test.
When used to evaluate the individual’s present academic or vocational
skill, it may be called an achievement test.
 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING?

• Psychological testing, also called psychometrics, is the systematic use of tests to

quantify psychophysical behaviour, abilities, and problems and to make
predictions about psychological performance.

• Psychological testing is a field characterized by the use of samples of behaviour in

order to assess psychological construct(s), such as cognitive and emotional
functioning about a given individual.

• By samples of behavior, it means observations of individual performing tasks that

have usually been prescribed beforehand; this is translated as scores on a test.

• These responses are often compiled into statistical tables that allow the evaluator
to compare the behavior of the individual being tested to the responses of a norm
group.

• In sum, the technical term for the science behind psychological testing is
psychometrics.
 USES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

• Psychological tests are used to

measure individual differences
on a criterion variable or
differences between reactions of
a single person on different
criteria.
 Industrial/Organisational
• In the industrial setting, psychological tests are useful
for:
 screening and hiring job applicants,
 for selection and placement,
 for transfer, promotion, demotion, or termination of
employees.
 Tests are also used for selecting employees for training
and other personnel development programmes.
 For better understanding of the psychological states of
employees, like motivation, job satisfaction or work
commitment, psychological tests can be employed.
 Clinical
• Psychological tests are useful in the
clinical setting for examination of the
mental health state of individuals.
tests may be used to diagnose the
emotionally disturbed,
 the delinquent and people suffering
from other forms of psychological
impairment.
 Schools
• Tests are used for the selection of
candidates for professional and other
special schools.

• In schools, tests are also used for

placement into various career options,
for diagnosis of areas of academic
difficulties, and for vocational
counselling of school pupils.
 Neurological
• Psychological tests are useful in the
identification, or detection of brain damages
and intellectual deficiencies.

• Different parts of the brain function in

controlling different aspects of behaviour.

• Low performance on specific psychological

test can be used to infer area of brain
impairment.
 Other Uses
• Tests are used for a variety of purposes:
• Classification- It involves a decision that a person belongs in a
certain category, like being normal or abnormal.

• Self-understanding- This involves using test information as a

source of information about oneself, e.g. for career choice.

• Program evaluation- It involves the use of tests to assess the

effectiveness of a particular program or course of action, e.g.
evaluating the effectiveness of a training program.

• Scientific inquiry- For all areas of research, the precise

measurement of individual differences made possible by well-
constructed tests is an essential prerequisite.
 PARTIES INVOLVED IN TESTING

• There are generally three parties involved in testing, according to the

Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, though this could
become four:
1. Test Developer: This may be a company, an individual, a school, etc. The
Test Developer has certain responsibilities in developing, marketing,
distributing tests and educating test users.

2. Test User: This may be a counsellor, a clinician, a personnel official, etc.

The Test User has certain responsibilities in selecting, using, scoring,
interpreting, and utilizing tests.

3. Test Taker: This may be the client in many cases. The Test Taker has certain
rights regarding tests, their use, and the information gained from them.

4. Test Utilizer: This may be the test taker, but in other cases however, a
business or organization may send a person to be tested. Thus, the organization
also has certain rights regarding tests, their use, and the information gained
from them.
 Responsibilities of the Parties Involved In Testing

The Test Developer should:

1. Construct a manual containing all relevant information,
such as:
• the development and purpose of the test
• information on standardized administration and scoring
• data on the collection and composition of the standardization
sample
• information on the test reliability and validity
• adequate information for the educated consumer to determine the
appropriate and inappropriate use of the test
• references to relevant published research regarding the test and
its use
• information on correct interpretation and application and possible
sources of misuse, as well as any bias in test construction or use.
2. Support the information provided
with data.

3. Adhere to all ethical guidelines

regarding advertising, distributing, and
marketing testing material.
 The Test User should:

• Be aware of the limits of tests, in regards to reliability,

validity, standard error of measurement, confidence
intervals, as well as appropriate interpretation and use of
the instrument.

• Read the manual and understand all relevant

information.
•
• Assess own competence regarding use of a test or the
competence of those employed for that purpose.

• Adhere to the appropriate use of the test as stated in the

manual.
• Protect test security where such security is vital to test reliability
and validity.

• Be aware of the dangers of automated testing services and realize

that they are to be used only by professionals.

• Inform the client to be tested as to the purpose and potential use

and applicability of the testing materials and results, as well as
who will potentially have access to the results.

• The test user has the responsibility to see that the results are
made available and used only for and by those specified in the
consent agreement.

• Obsolete information should be regularly purged from records.

 Test Taker Rights

The Test-Taker has the right:

• To have the directions of testing as well as the results
of an evaluation explained in language that they can
understand.

• To have the confidentiality of that information

maintained within the limits promised during
informed consent.

• To have the results of the testing explained to them in

a meaningful way, and in most cases to know to
whom and how these results were shared.
 Rights of Test-Takers (APA)
• Be treated with courtesy, respect, regardless of age,
disability, ethnicity, gender, national origin, religion,
sexual orientation or other personal characteristics.

• Be tested with measures that meet professional standards and that are
appropriate.

• Receive a brief explanation prior to testing about the purpose(s) for testing, the
kind(s) of tests to be used.

• Individual’s freedom to decline, and freedom to withdraw, is respected.

• Have test administered and your test results interpreted by trained individuals
who follow professional codes of ethics.
 Ethical Standards in Testing
• Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct
necessary when carrying out testing.

• We have a moral responsibility to protect the

clients from harm.

• Psychologists need to remember that they have

a duty to respect the rights and dignity of the
clients.
Sources for Ethical Decisions
• APA: Ethical Principles of
Psychologists and Code of
Conduct

• Local code, e.g. NPA

• Rights of test takers

 Ethical issues in psych testing
1. Competence of psychologist
2. Informed Consent
3. The right to Results
4. Confidentiality
5. Test security
6. Divided Loyalties
7. Invasion of privacy
8. Labeling
9. Dehumanization
1. Competence

• Theoretical issues
• Actuarial vs. clinical prediction
 Test Givers Should:
• select test after review of tests available
• knowledge of test materials & manual
• not using test for purposes not recommended
by developers
• knowledge of ethical codes, e.g.:
– provide test-takers, or their parents, with
information about their rights
– explain results in language test-taker can
understand
 Theoretical Issues
• Is your test reliable? Reliability – upper limit on validity.

• Is your test valid for particular purpose?

• Are you measuring a stable characteristic of the person

being tested?

• If so, differences in scores over time reflect measurement

error or subject variables such as fatigue.

• What is the value of your test result – will it still be true

next year?
 Theoretical issues
• Suppose you test someone as part of a hiring
process.

• If the test result says that person does not have

the characteristic you’re looking for, does that
mean they could never acquire that
characteristic?
 Actuarial vs. clinical judgment
• Actuarial judgment occurs when we
feed test scores into statistical formulas
to diagnose a psychological condition or
predict future performance.

• Clinical judgment occurs when we have

a trained psychologist interpret test
scores to diagnose a psychological
condition or predict future performance.
Actuarial Judgement Clinical Judgment

• In actuarial judgment, • In clinical judgment,

we cannot make the claim is that you
accurate predictions can determine “what
tailored to individuals caused what” in an
individual’s person’s
Life
• Instead, our conclusion • But clinical judgment
will be the same for does not improve with
every person with a experience
given set of test scores
 Actuarial vs. clinical prediction

• E.g. metaanalysis: statistical formula

does a better job of prediction

• Still, someone has to be legally

responsible – that has to be a trained
professional
 2. Informed Consent
• Consent requires “affirmative
permission before actions can be
taken”.
 Informed Consent
• Elements of Informed Consent Agreements
–Must be presented in a clear and understandable
manner
–Reason for the test administration.
–Tests and evaluations procedures to be used.
–How assessment scores will be used.
–Who will have access to the results.
–Present rights of test taker e.g. to refuse.
- If underage is tested written informed consent must be
obtained from the parents, guardian
 Testing: Debriefing
-Restate purpose of the testing.

-Explain how the results will be used (usually

emphasize that the interest is in the group
findings).

-Reiterate that findings will be treated

confidentially.

-Answer all of the respondents questions fully.

 Informed consent – exceptions

• When it is acceptable to test without getting

consent?
 Acceptable, e.g., psychology students during a
course.

• When it is necessary to test without getting

consent?
 Necessary e.g., when mandated by law.
 Knowledge of Results

• Must fully disclose test results in

understandable language

• Avoid using theoretical constructs e.g.

crystallized intelligence, ego strength etc.

• Do not use technical terms, e.g. your

neuroticism is 6 sten
 4. Confidentiality
• Test results are confidential
information

• Release of results should only be

made to another qualified professional
after client’s consent
 5. Test Security
• Test materials must be kept secured

• Test items are not revealed except in

training programs and when mandated
by law, to protect test integrity

• Test items are private property

 6. Divided loyalties
• Who is the client?
 The person being tested, or the institution you
work for?

• What if these parties have conflicting interests?

• Examples?
 How do you maintain test security but also
explain an adverse decision?
 7. Invasion of Privacy
• When tested people may feel their privacy is invaded.
• The clinician is always ultimately responsible; this includes:
• scoring and interpretation done by a computer
 Informed consent – informing the client about both the
nature of the information being collected and the purposes
for the which results will be used

 Relevance – is the information gathered through

assessment
 relevant to the test giver? Test giver should be able to
clearly state purpose and benefits of appraisal process
 8. Labeling
• Once diagnosed, the disease can be labeled.
• E.g. psychiatric labels can be damaging.
• Public has little understanding of e.g. schizophrenia.
• When diagnosing, use least stigmatizing label
consistent with accurate representation
• – It does not mean that counselors should always
use less or nonstigmatizing diagnostic codes;
• a less stigmatizing code that is inaccurate could
prevent the client from receivingappropriate
treatment.
 8. Labeling
• Problem: a psych. desease is perceived
as medical.
• Ergo: ill person cannot do anything
about it.
• It is not true for psychological
disorders.
• A person can take responsibility to get
better.
 9. Dehumanization
• Some forms of testing remove any
human element from decision-
making process

• Seen as becoming more prevalent

with the increase in computer-testing
• 9. Dehumanization
• • Does computerized testing and analysis of test
• results create a danger of minimizing human
• uniqueness?
• • Humans are very complex – which allows us to
• be individuals, different from each other
• • But testing and interpretation generalize
• Access to psychological testing
• • We’ve considered possibility of being hurt by
• tests – but what about possible benefits of tests?
• Who gets those benefits?
• • WAIS-III kit costs $775 per person – for tester to
• buy the kit. Cost must be passed on to someone.
• Who should that be?
 Code of Ethics
• Code of ethics is a set of moral principles or values used or
applied by organisations to steer or direct the conduct of
both the organisation itself and its employees, in all their
business activities, both internal and in relation to the
outside world.

• Document of primary values and ethical rules the

organization expects managers and employees to follow.

• It applies both individually and collectively to the

organisation’s members.
 Work Ethics: Four Basic Moral Principles

• Respect for autonomy – the patient has the right to refuse

or choose their treatment.

• Beneficence – a practitioner should act in the best interest

of the patient.

• Non-maleficence – The concept is embodied by the phrase,

"first, do no harm.“ It is more important not to harm your
patient, than to do them good

• Justice – concerns the distribution of scarce health

resources, and the decision of who gets what treatment
(fairness and equality).
 Other values that are sometimes discussed include:

• Respect for persons – the patient (and the person

treating the patient) have the right to be treated
with dignity.
• Truthfulness and honesty –
• Informed consent - refers to the idea that a person
must be fully informed about and understand the
potential benefits and risks of their choice of
treatment
• Confidentiality- known as patient-physician
privilege. Legal protections prevent physicians from
revealing their discussions with patients, even under
oath in court.
 NOTE

• When moral values are in conflict, the result

may be an ethical dilemma or crisis.

• Sometimes, no good solution to a dilemma in

medical ethics exists, and, on occasion, the
values of the medical community (i.e., the
hospital and its staff) conflict with the values
of the individual patient, family, or larger non-
medical community.
• PSYCHOMETRIC THEORIES