POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERING

By
M.JANAKI
Asso.Prof
School of Electrical Engineering.
 Module - II
Modeling of Transmission Lines
 TRANSMISSION PARAMETERS (ABCD)

Two equations relate sending end and receiving end values. A, B, C

and D are transmission line parameters.
What is the use of transmission line?

To transmit power.

What is the expected performance?

Receiving end active power = Sending end active power

Receiving end voltage magnitude = Sending end voltage magnitude

However it is not true in practical transmission lines due to

active power loss and reactive power requirement of line and load.
(loss due to resistance, rise/drop in voltage due to
capacitance/inductance)

A transmission line should have

1.High efficiency

2.Less change in receiving end voltage magnitude from no load to full

load
 Two bus system

Reactive power is directly

proportional to difference
between voltage magnitudes
Efficiency of transmission line

Voltage regulation of transmission line is measure of change

of receiving end voltage from no-load to full load condition.

Every transmission line will have three basic electrical parameters. The
conductors of the line will have electrical resistance, inductance, and
capacitance. As the transmission line is a set of conductors being run
from one place to another supported by transmission towers, the
parameters are distributed uniformly along the line.
 Equivalent Circuit of Long Transmission line
With uniformly distributed parameters

The aim of transmission line is to transmit power from one end to

another. Like other electrical system, the transmission network also will
have some power loss and voltage drop during transmitting power from
sending end to receiving end. Hence, performance of transmission line can
be determined by its efficiency and voltage regulation.
 Classification of Overhead Transmission Lines

A transmission line has three constants R, L and C distributed

uniformly along the whole length of the line. The resistance and
inductance form the series impedance. The capacitance existing between
conductors for 1-phase line or from a conductor to neutral for a 3-phase
line forms a shunt path throughout the length of the line. Therefore,
capacitance effects introduce complications in transmission line
calculations. Depending upon the manner in which capacitance is taken
into account, the overhead transmission lines are classified as :

(i) Short transmission lines

(ii) Medium transmission lines

(iii) Long transmission lines

(i) Short transmission lines. When the length of an overhead
transmission line is upto about 50km and the line voltage is
comparatively low (< 20 kV), it is usually considered as a short
transmission line. Due to smaller length and lower voltage, the
capacitance effects are small and hence can be neglected.
Therefore, while studying the performance of a short transmisison line,
only resistance and inductance of the line are taken into account.

(ii) Medium transmission lines. When the length of an overhead

transmission line is about 50-150 km and the line voltage is moderatly
high (>20 kV < 100 kV), it is considered as a medium transmission
line. Due to sufficient length and voltage of the line, the capacitance
effects are taken into account. For purposes of calculations, the
distributed capacitance of the line is divided and lumped in the
form of condensers shunted across the line at one or more
points.

(iii) Long transmission lines. When the length of an overhead

transmission line is more than 150 km and line voltage is very high (>
100 kV), it is considered as a long transmission line. For the
treatment of such a line, the line constants are considered
uniformly distributed over the whole length of the line and
rigorous methods are employed for solution.
Performance of Transmission Lines

The performance of the transmission line is studied by

determining voltage regulation and transmission efficiency.

(i) Voltage regulation. When a transmission line is carrying current,

there is a voltage drop in the line due to resistance and inductance
of the line. The result is that receiving end voltage (VR) of the line is
generally less than the sending end voltage (VS).
This voltage drop (VS −VR) in the line is expressed as a percentage of
receiving end voltage VR and is called voltage regulation.

The difference in voltage at the receiving end of a

transmission line between conditions of no load and full load is called
voltage regulation and is expressed as a percentage of the
receiving end voltage.
(ii) Transmission efficiency. The power obtained at the receiving end of
a transmission line is generally less than the sending end power due to
losses in the line resistance.
The ratio of receiving end power to the sending end power of a
transmission line is known as the transmission efficiency of the line

where VR, IR and cos ΦR are the receiving end voltage, current and power
factor while VS, IS and cos ФS are the corresponding values at the sending
end.
Modeling of Transmission Lines
 Short Transmission Lines

The effects of line capacitance are neglected for a short

transmission line. Therefore, while studying the performance of such a
line, only resistance and inductance of the line are taken into account.
The equivalent circuit of a single phase short transmission line is shown in
Fig. Here, the total line resistance and inductance are shown as
concentrated or lumped instead of being distributed. The circuit is a
simple a.c. series circuit.
Solution in complex notation

δ
 TRANSMISSION PARAMETERS

09/26/22 15
 Determination of Generalized Constants for Transmission Lines

(i) Short lines

Comparing with general equation

1. A single phase 11 kV line with a length of 15 km is to transmit 500
kVA. The inductive reactance of the line is 0·5 Ω/km and the
resistance is 0·3 Ω/km. Calculate the efficiency and regulation of the
line for 0·8 lagging power factor.

[97·74%, 3·34%]

2. A load of 1000 kW at 0·8 p.f. lagging is received at the end of a 3-

phase line 20 km long. The resistance and reactance of each
conductor are 0·25 Ω and 0·28 Ω per km. If the receiving end line
voltage is maintained at 11 kV, calculate :
(i) sending end voltage (line-to-line) (ii) percentage regulation
(iii) transmission efficiency
[(i) 11·84 kV (ii) 7·61% (iii)
94·32%]

3. A single phase transmission line is delivering 500 kVA load at 2 kV.

Its resistance is 0·2 Ω and inductive reactance is 0·4 Ω. Determine
the voltage regulation if the load power factor is (i) 0·707 lagging (ii)
0·707 leading.
[(i) 5·3% (ii)
−1·65%]
 Medium Transmission Lines
In short transmission line calculations, the effects of the line
capacitance are neglected because such lines have smaller lengths and
transmit power at relatively low voltages (< 20 kV). However, as the
length and voltage of the line increase, the capacitance gradually
becomes of greater importance. Since medium transmission lines have
sufficient length (50-150 km) and usually operate at voltages greater
than 20 kV, the effects of capacitance cannot be neglected. Therefore, in
order to obtain reasonable accuracy in medium transmission line
calculations, the line capacitance must be taken into consideration.
The capacitance is uniformly distributed over the entire length of
the line. However, in order to make the calculations simple, the line
capacitance is assumed to be lumped or concentrated in the form of
capacitors shunted across the line at one or more points.
The most commonly used methods (known as localised
capacitance methods) for the solution of medium transmissions lines
are :
(i) End condenser method (ii) Nominal T method (iii) Nominal π
method.
 (i) End Condenser Method

In this method, the capacitance of the line is lumped or

concentrated at the receiving or load end as shown in Fig. This
method of localising the line capacitance at the load end
overestimates the effects of capacitance.
(ii) Nominal T Method
In this method, the whole line capacitance is assumed to be
concentrated at the middle point of the line and half the line
resistance and reactance are lumped on its either side as shown in
Fig.
 Nominal π Method
In this method, capacitance of each conductor (i.e., line to neutral) is
divided into two halves; one half being lumped at the sending end and
the other half at the receiving end as shown in Fig.
(ii) Medium lines – Nominal T method.

(iii) Medium lines—Nominal π method.

1. A (medium) single phase transmission line 100 km long has the
following constants :
Resistance/km/phase = 0·15Ω
Inductive reactance/km/phase = 0·377 Ω
Capacitive reactance/km/phase = 31·87 Ω
Receiving end line voltage = 132 kV

Assuming that the total capacitance of the line is localised at

the receiving end alone, determine :
(i) sending end current (ii) line value of sending end voltage
(iii) power angle and sending end power factor (iv) regulation
The line is delivering 72 MW at 0·8 p.f. lagging.
Given data

R  0.15 *100  15  / phase

X l  0.377 *100  37.7  / phase
X c  31.87 *100  3187  / phase

(i) Calculate sending end current

  PR 72 106
I C  jBC V R IR   3
 681Amps
VR cos  R 132 10  0.8
1
BC  
XC I R  I R (cos  R  j sin  R )
 
V R  VR 0 
I R  681  36.87 Amps
 1 1
BC    3.13 10  4
X C 3187

I C  j 3.13  10 4 132  103  j 41.41

I S  545  j 408.6  j 41.41
 545  j 367.19
 657  33.97 Amps

(ii) Sending end voltage

   
VS  VR  I S Z
132 103 0  657  33.97   40.5768.3
132 103 0  26.654 103 34.33
154.775.579 kV
(iii) Power angle and sending end power factor

Sending end voltage angle δ = 5.57˚

angle between sending end voltage (Vs) and current (Is)
s = δ + angle of Is
= 5.57˚ + 33.97˚ = 39.54˚
sending end power factor

cos s  cos 39.54  0.7743 lagging

(iv) Voltage regulation

VS  VR 156.24  132
*100  *100  18.364 %
VR 132
(v) Transmission efficiency

Receiving end power

Sending end power

sending end power = Receiving end power + line losses

PR 72
 2

PR  I S R 72  6.475

= 91.7 %
2. A 3-phase, 50 Hz overhead transmission line has the following
constants :
Resistance/phase = 9·6 Ω
Inductance/phase = 15 Ω
Capacitance/phase = 0·765 µF
If the line is supplying a balanced load of 24,000 kVA 0·8 p.f. lagging at
66 kV, and the total capacitance of the line is localised at the receiving
end alone, calculate :
(i) sending end current (ii) line value of sending end voltage
(iii) Power angle and sending end pf (iv) percentage regulation
(v) transmission efficiency

[(i) 204 A (ii) 75 kV (iii) 0·814 lag (iv) 13·63 % (v) 93·7%]
Not correct
2. A 3-phase, 50 Hz, overhead transmission line delivers 10 MW at 0·8
p.f. lagging and at 66 kV. The resistance and inductive reactance of
the line per phase are 10 Ω and 20 Ω respectively while capacitance
admittance is 4 × 10− 4 siemen. Calculate :
(i) the sending end current (ii) sending end voltage (line-to-line)
(iii) Power angle and sending end pf (iv) transmission efficiency
Use nominal T method.

[(i) 100 A (ii) 69·8 kV (iii) 0·852 (iv) 97·5%]

Given data

R  10  / phase 66000
VR / phase   38.106 kV
X l  20  / phase 3
Bc  4 *104 siemen / phase
  
(i) Calculate sending end current
I S  I R I C

PR 10 106
IR   3
 109.35 Amps
3VR cos  R 3  66  10  0.8

I R  I R (cos  R  j sin  R )  109.35(0.8  j 0.6)

I R  87.48  j 65.6  109.35  36.87 Amps
  
I C  jBC V 1 I S  87.48  j 65.6  0.2187  j15.68
 
R
 X   87.261  j 49.93
V1 V R I R  j l 
2 2   100.54  29.78 Amps
 38106  109.35(0.8  j 0.6)5  j10
 39200  j 546.75  392040.799

I C  0.2187  j15.68

(ii) Sending end voltage

  
R Xl 
V S  V 1 I S   j 
2 2 
 39200  j 546.75  (87.261  j 49.93)(5  j10)
 40136  j1169.7
 401531.67
VS ( L  L)  69.545 kV
(iii) Power angle and sending end power factor

Power angle = angle of Vs - angle of Vr = 1.67˚

angle between sending end voltage (Vs) and current (Is)

Sending end P.F angle s = angle of Vs - angle of Is

= 1.67˚ + 29.78˚ = 31.45˚
Sending end power factor

cos s  cos 31.45  0.853 lagging

(iv) Voltage regulation

VS  VR 40153  38106
*100  *100  5.37 %
VR 38106
 (v) Transmission efficiency

Receiving end power/phase PR VR I R cos  R

 
sending end power/phase PS VS I S cos S

(or)
sending end power/phase = Receiving end power/phase + line losses/phase

PR / phase 3.3333
 
R R 3.3333  0.1103
PR / phase  I S2  I R2
2 2
= 96.8 %
3. A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 100 km transmission line has the following
constants ;
Resistance/phase/km = 0·1 Ω
Reactance/phase/km = 0·5 Ω
Susceptance/phase/km = 10−5 siemen

If the line supplies a load of 20 MW at 0·9 p.f. lagging at 66

kV at the receiving end, calculate by using nominal π method :
(i) sending end current (ii) line value of sending end voltage
(iii) Power angle and sending end pf (iv) regulation
[(i) 177·6 A (ii) 76kV (iii) 0·905 lag (iv) 15·15%]
Given data

R  10  / phase 66000
VR / phase   38.106 kV
X l  50  / phase 3
Bc  10 3 siemen / phase

  
(i) Calculate sending end current
I S  I R I C

PR 20 106
IR   3
 194.4 Amps
3VR cos  R 3  66  10  0.9

I R  I R (cos R  j sin  R )  194.4(0.9  j 0.4359)

I R  174.96  j84.74  194.4  25.84 Amps

C  
C 
I CR  j   V R I CS  j   V S
2 2
 j19.053
  
I L  I R  I CR  174.96  j84.74  j19.053  174.96  j 65.69  186.88  20.58
  
V S  V R  I L R  jX l 
 38106  (174.96  j 65.69)10  j 50
 43140  j8091.1  4389210.623

I CS  4.0456  j 21.57

sending end current (ii)Sending end voltage (L-L)

 
I S  174.96  j 65.69  4.0456  j 21.57 V S  4389210.623
 170.91  j 44.116 VS ( L  L)  76 kV
 176.52  14.473 Amps
(iii) Power angle and sending end power factor

Sending end voltage angle δ = 10.623˚

angle between sending end voltage (Vs) and current (Is)
s = δ + angle of Is
= 10.623˚ + 14.473˚ = 25.096˚
sending end power factor

cos s  cos 25.096  0.905 lagging

(iv) Voltage regulation

VS  VR 43892  38106
*100  *100  15.18 %
VR 38106
(v) Transmission efficiency

Receiving end power/phase

sending end power/phase

sending end power/phase = Receiving end power/phase + line losses/phase

PR / phase 6.6667
 2

PR / phase  I L R 6.6667  0.34924

= 95.02 %
 Long Transmission Lines
In long transmission lines, the shunt capacitance can not be assumed
as lumped parameter which leads calculation error.

In fig., long line is divided into ‘n’ sections, and each section has equal
parameters.
 Analysis of Long Transmission Line (Rigorous method)

Length of the line = L

Consider a small element in the line of length dx situated at a distance x

from the receiving end.

Then for the small element dx,

z dx = series impedance
y dx = shunt admittance
 (i)

(ii)

Differentiating eq.(i)
Differentiating the above eq.

The values of k1 and k2 can be found by applying end conditions.

Generalised Circuit Constants of a Transmission Line
EXPLAIN

Network is said to be symmetrical

Network is said to be reciprocal

 Determination of Generalized Constants for Transmission Lines

(i) Short lines

Comparing with general equation

(ii) Medium lines – Nominal T method.

(iii) Medium lines—Nominal π method.

(iv) Long lines—Rigorous method.
1. A 150 km, 3-φ, 110 kV, 50 Hz transmission line transmits a load of
40,000 kW at 0·8 p.f. lagging at the receiving end.
Resistance/km/phase = 0·15Ω ; reactance/km/phase = 0·6 Ω;
susceptance/km/phase = 10−5 S. Determine (i) the A, B, C and D
constants of the line (ii) regulation of the line.
[(i) A = D = 0·932 1.03º ; B = 90·7 76·3ºΩ ; C =
0·0014690·33º S (ii) 33·5%]
 0.13915165.96 (0.13915165.96 ) 2
 1 
2 24
 1  (0.069577165.96 )  (0.00080684 - 28.072 )
 0.93321  j 0.016495
 0.933211.0126
 3/ 2
[( 22.5  j 90)( j 0 . 0015)]
 [(22.5  j 90)( j 0.0015)]1/ 2 
6
3/ 2

 1/ 2 (0.13915165.96 )
 (0.13915165.96 ) 
6
 0.3646583.312

B  248.69  7.0181 * 0.3646583.312


 90.68576.294
C  0.0040211  7.0181 * 0.3646583.312

 0.001466390.33
Regulation at receiving end

No load Vr - Full load Vr

Regulation along line

2. Calculate A, B, C and D constants of a 3-phase, 50 Hz transmission
line 160 km long having the following distributed parameters :
R = 0·15 Ω/km ; L = 1·20 × 10−3 H/km ; C = 8 × 10−9 F/km ; G = 0

[A = D = 0·9880·3º ; B = 64·268·3º Ω ; C=0·4 × 10−3 90·2ºS]

Surge Impedance Loading
In long transmission lines

Characteristic impedance
or
Surge impedance

Propagation constant

Attenuation constant

Phase constant
 Surge impedance for lossless line

This is called as Surge impedance for lossless line. In lossless line, series
resistance and shunt conductance are negligible. Therefore this ratio
becomes real number whose unit is ohms, hence a resistance.
Surge Impedance Loading: This is the amount of transmitted power,
when the line terminated with resistive load equal to surge impedance.

Line current

Surge Impedance is an indicative of voltage profile of a

transmission line.
When the connected load of a transmission line is equal to
Surge Impedance, the voltage profile of a transmission line is
same is sending end to receiving end.

When the connected load of a transmission line is less than

Surge Impedance, the voltage swell occurs in a transmission
line from the sending end to receiving end.

When the connected load of a transmission line is greater than

Surge Impedance, the voltage sag occurs in a transmission line
from the sending end to receiving end.
The surge impedance loading or SIL of a transmission line is the MW
loading of a transmission line at which a natural reactive power balance
occurs.

The value of the SIL to a system operator is realizing that when a line is
loaded above its SIL it acts like a shunt reactor - absorbing Mvar from
the system - and when a line is loaded below its SIL it acts like a shunt
capacitor - supplying Mvar to the system.
 In electric power transmission, the characteristic impedance of a transmission
line is expressed in terms of the surge impedance loading (SIL), or natural loading,
being the power loading at which reactive power is neither produced nor absorbed:

in which    is the line-to-line voltage in volts.

Loaded below its SIL, a line supplies reactive power to the system, tending to
raise system voltages. Above it, the line absorbs reactive power, tending to depress
the voltage. The Ferranti effect describes the voltage gain towards the remote end of a
very lightly loaded (or open ended) transmission line. Underground cables normally
have a very low characteristic impedance, resulting in an SIL that is typically in excess
of the thermal limit of the cable. Hence a cable is almost always a source of reactive
power.

The permissible loading of a transmission line may be expressed as a fraction

of its SIL and SIL provides a comparison of load carrying capabilities of lines. By
increasing the value of receiving end voltage, the power transmitted through long
transmission line can be increased. It can also be increased by using more than one
transmission lines in parallel. But the method is costly. Hence for increasing SIL, Vr is
increased or Zc is decreased.
Low voltage (LV) – less than 1000 volts, used for connection between
a residential or small commercial customer and the utility.

Medium voltage (MV; distribution) – between 1000 volts (1 kV) and

to 69 kV, used for distribution in urban and rural areas.

High voltage (HV) - subtransmission less than 100 kV; subtransmission

or transmission at voltage such as 115 kV and 138 kV), used for sub-
transmission and transmission of bulk quantities of electric power and
connection to very large consumers.

Extra high voltage (EHV; transmission) – over 230 kV, up to about

800 kV, used for long distance, very high power transmission.

Ultra high voltage (UHV) – higher than 800 kV

 LONG TRANSMISSION LINE

09/26/22 74
 V and I are the voltage and current at any point distant x from the
receiving end. It can be seen very easily from the above expression that V
and I (magnitude and phase) are functions of the distance x, receiving end
voltage Vr and current Ir and the parameters of the line, which means
they vary as we move from receiving end towards the sending end.
Ferranti effect (with distributed parameters)

Under no-load or light load conditions

Propagation constant

Attenuation constant

Phase constant
 the real part α is known as attenuation constant and the
quadrature component β is the phase constant and is measured in radians
per unit length.

The first term in the above expression is called the incident

voltage wave as its value increases as x is increased. Since we are taking
receiving end as the reference and as x increases the value of voltage
increases that means a voltage wave decreases in magnitude as it travels
from the sending end towards the receiving end, that is why this part of
the voltage in the above expression is called incident voltage. For similar
reason the second part is called the reflected voltage. At any point along
the line, voltage is the sum of these two components i.e., sums of incident
and reflected voltages.
 Ferranti effect (with lumped parameters)
When medium or long transmission lines are operated at no-
load or light-load, the receiving-end voltage becomes more than the
sending-end voltage. The phenomenon of rise in voltage at the
receiving-end of the transmission line during no load or light load
condition is called the Ferranti effect.
The charging current produces a voltage drop in the series
reactance of the line. This voltage drop is in phase opposition to the
receiving-end voltage, and hence the sending-end voltage becomes
smaller than the receiving-end voltage.
 The line resistance is usually small as compared to the line
reactance. Hence, the resistance is neglected. Neglecting resistive drop
of the line, IcR, we get (Rising in voltage),

The negative sign in above equation

indicates that Vr is more than Vs.
If C0 and L0 are the capacitance and inductance of the transmission line
per meter length, respectively and l is the length of the line in meters,
then:

The Ferranti Effect will be more pronounced the longer the line
and the higher the voltage applied. The relative voltage rise is
proportional to the square of the line length.
Due to high capacitance, the Ferranti effect is much more
pronounced in underground cables, even in short lengths.
 CORONA

The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of

ozone gas in an overhead transmission line is known as corona.

Corona is due to ionization of air surrounding the conductors.

When an alternating potential difference is applied across two

conductors whose spacing is large as compared to their diameters, there is
no apparent change in the condition of atmospheric air surrounding the
wires if the applied voltage is low.

However, when the applied voltage exceeds a certain value, called

critical disruptive voltage, the conductors are surrounded by a faint
violet glow called corona.
 When an alternating current is made to flow across two
conductors of the transmission line whose spacing is large compared to
their diameters, then air surrounding the conductors (composed of
ions) is subjected to di-electric stress. At low values of supply end
voltage, nothing really occurs as the stress is too less to ionize the air
outside. But when the potential difference is made to increase beyond
some threshold value of around 30 kV known as the critical
disruptive voltage, then the field strength increases and then the air
surrounding it experiences stress high enough to be dissociated into
ions making the atmosphere conducting. This results in electric
discharge around the conductors due to the flow of these ions, giving
rise to a faint luminescent glow, along with the hissing sound
accompanied by the liberation of ozone, which is readily identified due
to its characteristic odor. This phenomena of electrical discharge
occurring in transmission line for high values of voltage is known as the
corona effect in power system. If the voltage across the lines is still
increased the glow becomes more and more intense along with hissing
noise, inducing very high power loss into the system which must be
accounted for.
 Under normal conditions, the air around the conductors contains
some ionised particles (i.e., free electrons and +ve ions) and neutral
molecules. When p.d. is applied between the conductors, potential
gradient is set up in the air which will have maximum value at the
conductor surfaces. Under the influence of potential gradient, the existing
free electrons acquire greater velocities. The greater the applied voltage,
the greater the potential gradient and more is the velocity of free
electrons.
These free electrons strike the neutral molecules and ionizes it
and thus another free electron is produced.
Thus, the process of ionisation is cummulative. The result of this
ionisation is that either corona is formed or spark takes place between
the conductors.
Factors Affecting Corona
(i) Atmosphere. As corona is formed due to ionization of air
surrounding the conductors, therefore, it is affected by the physical
state of atmosphere. In the stormy weather (rainy and snowfall
season), the number of ions is more than normal and as such corona
occurs at much less voltage as compared with fair weather.
(ii) Conductor shape. The corona effect depends upon the shape and
conditions of the conductors. The rough and irregular surface will give
rise to more corona because unevenness of the surface decreases the
value of breakdown voltage. Thus a stranded conductor has irregular
surface and hence gives rise to more corona that a solid conductor.
(iii) Spacing between conductors. If the spacing between the
conductors is made very large as compared to their diameters, there
may not be any corona effect. It is because larger distance between
conductors reduces the electro-static stresses at the conductor surface,
thus avoiding corona formation.
(iv) Line voltage. The line voltage greatly affects corona. If it is low,
there is no change in the condition of air surrounding the conductors
and hence no corona is formed. However, if the line voltage has such a
value that electrostatic stresses developed at the conductor surface
make the air around the conductor conducting, then corona is formed.
(i) Critical disruptive voltage. It is the minimum phase-neutral
voltage at which corona occurs.
Consider two conductors of radii r cm and spaced d cm
apart.

Barometric pressure of b cm of mercury and temperature of tºC

 (irregularity factor)

(ii) Visual critical voltage. It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage

at which corona glow appears all along the line conductors.
It has been seen that in case of parallel conductors, the corona
glow does not begin at the disruptive voltage Vc but at a higher voltage
Vv, called visual critical voltage. The phase-neutral effective value of
visual critical voltage is given by the following formula :
(iii) Power loss due to corona. Formation of corona is always
accompanied by energy loss which is dissipated in the form of light, heat,
sound and chemical action. When disruptive voltage is exceeded, the
power loss due to corona is given by :
Disadvantages of corona
(i) Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This affects the
transmission efficiency of the line.
(ii) Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of the
conductor due to chemical action.
(iii) The current drawn by the line due to corona is non-sinusoidal and
hence non-sinusoidal voltage drop occurs in the line. This may cause
inductive interference with neighbouring communication lines.

Methods of Reducing Corona Effect

(i) By increasing conductor size: By increasing conductor
size, the voltage at which corona occurs is raised and hence corona
effects are considerably reduced. This is one of the reasons that ACSR
conductors which have a larger cross-sectional area are used in
transmission lines.
(ii) By increasing conductor spacing: By increasing the
spacing between conductors, the voltage at which corona occurs is raised
and hence corona effects can be eliminated. However, spacing cannot be
increased too much otherwise the cost of supporting structure (e.g.,
bigger cross arms and supports) may increase to a considerable extent.
1. A 3-phase, 220 kV, 50 Hz transmission line consists of 1·5 cm radius
conductor spaced 2 metres apart in equilateral triangular formation. If
the temperature is 40ºC and atmospheric pressure is 76 cm, calculate
the corona loss per km of the line. Take mo = 0·85.
2. Estimate the corona loss for a three-phase, 110 kV, 50 Hz, 150 km
long transmission line consisting of three conductors each of 10 mm
diameter and spaced 2·5 m apart in an equilateral triangle formation.
The temperature of air is 30ºC and the atmospheric pressure is 750
mm of mercury. Take irregularity factor as 0·85. Ionisation of air may
be assumed to take place at a maximum voltage gradient of 30
kV/cm. [316·8
kW]
 POWER FLOW THROUGH A TRANSMISSION LINE
(Analytical method)
In any power system network
 The real power, reactive power and apparent power can be
calculated by

1.Analytical method – using the equations, but due to calculation

difficulties

2.Graphical method – apart from power calculation, this is mainly used

to calculate the rating of VAR compensator.
How the power triangle is drawn?

Sr Sr
Qr
Qr
ϕr ϕr
Pr
Pr
Complex plane Sr

Imag axis
Real axis
δ – load angle, varies with load.
Assuming the condition where Vs and Vr are constant, and the load is varying. Hence the
location of bottom phasor moves over a circle.
 RECEIVING END POWER CIRCLE DIAGRAM
keeping Vs and Vr constant, From the diagram
When the load is varied (i.e
varying δ), the point k
moves over the circle as
shown in fig.

The power circle

diagram is a graphical
representation and used
to determine the
capacity of VAR device.

Since Vs and Vr are

constant, lengths nk and
no will not change, and
when δ increases Pr and
correspondingly Qr
changes.
Power is maximum
when δ = β
Pr is maximum when β – δ =0

Load must draw leading current to achieve this maximum power.

Similarly sending end power equation is,
Case – 1: Reactive power supplied by the transmission system alone

Qr ML = Qr = total reactive power

required by the load

O Pr L

AVr2/B Vs.Vr/B

N P
In this case, the total reactive power Qr (required by the load) is
supplied by the transmission line alone.

Calculate the sending end voltage from the length Vs.Vr/B

Case – 2: Reactive power supplied by the transmission system and
Synchronous Condenser.

Q1

M
Q2
Qr = total reactive power
required by the load

O Pr L
Q3
AVr /B
2 Vs.Vr/B

N P
There are three operating points,
1. If intersection point is Q1, Synchronous condenser is under-excited
to absorb the reactive power MQ1
2. If intersection point is Q2, Synchronous condenser is over-excited to
supply the reactive power MQ2 to load.

ML = MQ2 + LQ2

LQ2 = Reactive power supplied by the transmission line to load

MQ2= Reactive power supplied by the Synchronous condenser

3. If intersection point is Q3, Synchronous condenser is over-excited to

supply the reactive power MQ3 to load and transmission system.

MQ3 = ML + LQ3
1. If intersection point Q1 lies above M,

MQ1 = reactive power absorbed by the synchronous condenser

from the transmission system (condenser is in under-excited mode)
LM = reactive power supplied by the transmission system to the
load

2. If intersection point Q2 lies between LM,

MQ2 = reactive power supplied by the synchronous condenser to

the load (condenser is in over-excited mode)
LQ2 = reactive power supplied by the transmission system to the
load

3. If intersection point Q3 lies below L,

MQ3 = reactive power supplied by the synchronous condenser

(condenser is in over-excited mode)
LQ3 = reactive power supplied by the synchronous condenser to the
transmission system
Problem 1: The generalized circuit constants of a transmission line
are as follows

A = D = 0.92º, B = 14070º ohms/phase

The line delivers 60 MVA at 132 kV and 0.8 p.f lagging. Draw the
circle diagrams and find,
(i) Sending end voltage and power angle
(ii) the maximum power that can be transmitted with the above
sending and receiving end voltages
(iii) sending end power and power factor
(iv)Line losses
 Taking 1 cm = 10 MVA

Vr per phase = 76.21 kV

(i) Receiving end power circle diagram

AVr2/B = 37.34 MVA
= 3.73 cm
Radius of receiving end circle = Vs.Vr/B = ? cm = ? MVA

Vs = ? δ=?

(ii) Max power transmitted = JK = ?

(iii) Draw OCs at angle β-α = 68° with positive real axis.

OCs = AVs2/B =

Radius of sending end circle = same as receiving end circle

Draw CsP at an angle α+δ. OP = sending end MVA

(iv) Line losses = Ps – Pr =

 MVAR
Cs

α+δ

P
β-α Qr
O Φs
β-α Pr L MW

β-δ
Cr J K
 MVAR
Cs

α+δ

M
P
β-α Qr
O Φs
β-α Pr L N MW

β-δ
Cr J K
Problem 2: The generalized circuit constants of a transmission line
are as follows

A = D = 0.8951.4º, B = 182.578.6º

(i) If the line supplies a load of 50 MW at 0.9 p.f and 215kV, find
the sending end voltage and hence the regulation of the line.
(ii) For a load of 80 MW at 0.9 p.f lag, 215kV, determine the
reactive power supplied by the synchronous capacitor if the
sending end voltage is 236kV. Also determine the p.f of the line
at the receiving end.
(iii)Determine the maximum power that can be transmitted if the
sending and receiving end voltages are as in (ii).
(i) MVAR

Qr

Φr
β-α O Pr L MW
AVr2/B
= 75.56 MVA
Vs.Vr/B

β-δ
N
β-α = 77.2°
Taking 1 cm = 10
(i) Measure the phasor length Vs.Vr/B, and calculate Vs from it.

Vs = 229 kV (L-L)

Vs/A = 132.2/0.895 kV

% Regn = (147.73-124.13)/124.13 = 19.01%

(ii) Calculate Vs.Vr/B and draw this phasor in graph to intersect at
any point on vertical line. Now the operating point is at Q (between
ML). Therefore,

Reactive power supplied by

Synchronous capacitor, MQ = 0.25 cm = 5 MVAr

Line, QL = MVAr
Line p.f = cosθ = 0.93

Maximum power transferred =NP-ON= 4.55 cm = 227.5 MW

(ii)

Q
Qr

θ
O Pr L

AVr2/B Vs.Vr/B

N P
Problem 3:

220
Phase voltage=
3
It should be a phase voltage
220
3
REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION
SHUNT COMPENSATORS
SERIES COMPENSATOR