Virtual Lecture 2 Thermodynamics

TURBOMACHINERY AEAS : 407
TURBOMACHINERY LECT-2
COURSE OUTCOMES (CO)

 GAIN KNOWLEDGE : Understanding of turbomachines and analyze
aerothermodynamic process of Nozzle and Stator and its
significance
 : Predict of Performance of Turbomachines by Dimensional
Analysis techniques
: Analyze Aerodynamic forces on blades by understanding
flow through Cascades
: Examine Aerothermodynamic analysis of flow through Axial
Flow Compressors
 : Examine Aerothermodynamic Analysis of flow through Axial
Flow Turbines and Analyse parameters affecting performance
of Axial Flow Compressors
 : Examine Aerothermodynamic analysis of flow through
Centrifugal Compressors and Radial Turbines and also Predict design
and Off design performance of Gas Turbines and Demonstrate
understanding of Aerothermodynamic coupling of components
REFERENCE BOOKS LECT-2
Name of Book Author
Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion Hill and Peterson
Gas Turbine Engine H Cohen, GFC Rogers , HIH Saravanamuttoo
Turbines, Compressors and Fans S M Yahya, Fourth Edition
Fluid Mechanics, Thermodynamics of S L Dixon, Pergamon Press, 1996

Turbomachinery
Principles of Turbomachinery Seppo A. Korpela, Wiley Publications
Fundamentals of Turbomachinery BK Venkanna
Aircraft Propulsion : Science of making thrust to fly : Prof. Bhaskar Roy

SYLLABUS
 Introduction to Turbomachinery
 Thermodynamics
 Nozzles
 Diffuser
 Compressor
 Turbine
 Dimensional Analysis
 Incompressible Machines
 Comprehensible Machine
 Cascade Aerodynamics
 Axial Flow Compressors - Aerodynamics
SYLLABUS
 Axial Flow Turbines – Aerodynamics

 Introduction
Velocity Diagrams
 Single and Multiple stages
 Problems Solving
 Turbine Blade Cooling
 Turbine Blade Cooling
 Methods of Cooling
 Appreciation and Understanding of Heat Exchange
 Materials : Type and Why
SYLLABUS
 Centrifugal Compressor
 Construction
 Advantages / Disadvantages
 Velocity Diagrams
 Applications
 Questions and Problems
 Radial Turbines
 Construction
 Types of Radial Turbines
 Velocity Diagrams
 Instabilities of Compressors
VIRTUAL LECTURE -1
 In this lecture, we studied

 Engine and Heat Engine
Classification of Heat Engine and Engine
 PDM and Turbomachine
Classification of Turbo machine
 Vector Analysis of gas flow in Rotor & Stator : Axial Flow
Compressor
VIRTUAL LECTURE – 2
 In this lecture, we will study

Thermodynamics
 Basic Definitions
 Laws of Thermodynamics
 Types of System
 Types of Process
 Nozzle and Diffusers
 Energy Equations
Definitions
AEROSPACE PROPULSION LECT-2
 Thermodynamics means ?
Encompasses all aspects of energy
therme (heat) dynamics (work) and energy conversions
conversion of
heat into power
 Thermodynamics and Aerodynamics analyses of turbines,
compressors, fans and blowers require relations between Force, Mass
and Velocity
 Following laws are frequently used in dealing with problems of design
and operation of turbo machines:-
 First Law of thermodynamics – energy equation in its various forms
 Second Law of thermodynamics – entropy and loss relations
 Law of Conservation of Mass – continuity relations
 Newton’s Second Law of Motion – momentum equations
Basic Definitions Lect-2
 System
 A system in thermodynamics is nothing more than the collection of matter
that is being studied. ... Everything external to the system is called
the thermodynamic surroundings, and the system is separated from
the surroundings by the system boundaries. These boundaries may either be
fixed or movable.
 Types of Systems
 Closed System
 Open System (Control Volume)
 Isolated System
 Closed System (Control Mass)

 Has fixed qty of matter
 No inflow or outflow of matter – conservation of mass is satisfied
 Can interact with surroundings through work and heat transfer : Energy
interaction of system with surroundings possible
 Example : Expanding of gas in IC Engines
 Open System (Control Volume)

 Continuous flow of matter
 Referred as Control Volume
 Fixed space – but does not contain fixed mass of matter (continuous flow of
matter
 Surface surrounding the control volume is known as control surface
 Isolated System
 No inflow or outflow of matter or energy
 State
 State of system is its condition which is defined by its properties
The thermodynamic state of a system is defined by specifying values of a set of

measurable properties sufficient to determine all other properties.
 Properties may be extensive or intensive or specific
 Intensive : Do not depend on the quantity of matter

present. Temperature and pressure are intensive properties
 Extensive : Extensive properties are additive i.e. dependent on size. Volume is an

extensive property.
 Specific : Specific properties are extensive properties per unit mass and are denoted
by lower case letters. For example:
 Process
 A process is a change or series of changes in the state of the system.
Process can Isothermal, Isobaric, Isochoric, Isentropic, Isenthalpic, Adiabatic,
Reversible, Irreversible, Non-flow process, flow process etc
Series of state through which a system passes during the
process is called path
 Cycle
 When a initial and final states of a system experiences a
series of process are identical, it is said to execute a cycle
 Equilibrium
 The state of a system in which properties have definite, unchanged values as
long as external conditions are unchanged is called an equilibrium state.
 System in thermodynamic equilibrium does not deliver any useful work and it
satisfies:-
 Mechanical equilibrium (no unbalanced forces) (Pr = const)
 Thermal equilibrium (no temperature differences) (Temp=const)
 Chemical equilibrium (no chemical reaction)
 Phase equilibrium (mass of ach phase is in equilibrium)
 Energy
 Macroscopic Energy – energy that a system possesses as a whole w.r.t some
outside reference frame e.g. K.E and P.E
 Microscopic Energy – related to molecular structure of a system and the
degree of molecular activity and are independent of outside reference frame
e.g. Internal Energy (U) – energy stored in it by virtue of its molecular motion
 U = sensible energy + Latent energy + Chemical Energy + Nuclear Energy
(K.E of molecule) (wrt phase change) (with atomic bonds) (strong bonds within nucleus)
 Total Energy
 E = Thermal + Mechanical + P.E + K.E +Electrical + Magnetic + Chemical +
Nuclear etc
E = K.E + P.E + U ( in absence of electric/magnetic/surface tension effects)
E = 1/2mv2 (KJ) + mgz (KJ) + U (KJ)
e = (V2 /2) + u + gz
 Energy is the capacity of doing the work. State of the system can be changed
by adding or extracting energy.
 Heat and Work : both are different forms of energy (in transit).
 Heat : transfers between two systems by virtue of temperature difference.
Heat transfer to or from the system, changes the state.
 Work = force x distance in the direction of force
 Both heat and work are the path functions and depend on type of process –
therefore they are not properties.
 Energy, Heat and Work -- all are expressed in Joules (J), KJ or N.m
 Total Energy
 E = Thermal + Mechanical + P.E + K.E +Electrical + Magnetic + Chemical +
Nuclear etc
E = 1/2mv2 (KJ) + mgz (KJ) + U (KJ)
e = (V2 /2) + u + gz
 Energy is the capacity of doing the work. State of the system can be changed
by adding or extracting energy.
 Heat and Work : both are different forms of energy (in transit).
 Heat : transfers between two systems by virtue of temperature difference.
Heat transfer to or from the system, changes the state.
 Work = force x distance in the direction of force
 Both heat and work are the path functions and depend on type of process –
therefore they are not properties.
 Energy, Heat and Work - all are expressed in Joules (J), KJ or N.m
First Law of Thermodynamics Lect-2
First Law of Thermodynamics
 States that when a system executes a cyclic process, the algebraic sum of the work
transfer is proportional to the algebraic sum of the heat transfers
 dQ-dW : is independent of the path of process; hence a change in the property of

the system. This property is referred to as “energy”, and denoted by symbol E.
(two states)
Heat transfer = work + change in energy

Specific Heats of Gases

 Specific Heat of a gas is the heat carrying capacity in a process.
 Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of gas by one
degree
 Two different specific heats are used : in analysis of compressible flow machines
(a) Specific heat at constant volume(cv) : Amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of gas by one degree at constant volume
(b) Specific heat at constant pressure(cp) : Amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of gas by one degree at constant pressure
cp , cv = f (T)
cp = 1.005 KJ/Kg K , cv = 0.717 KJ/Kg K
 = 1.4 (air),  = 1.264-1.4 (superheated steam),  = 1.67 (helium),

 = 1.13-1.30 (Feron-21),  = 1.33 (products of combustion),
Internal Energy
 Internal Energy of a gas is the energy stored in it by virtue of its molecular motion
 In thermodynamics, the internal energy of the system is the energy contained
within the system.
 Internal energy is the sum total of all the K.E and P.E of all particles inside it. K.E is
the movement energy and P.E is position or separation energy. The temperature is
the measure of K.E/P.E of the particles.
 Internal energy for the Open System (Control Volume)
Q=W+E
but E = K.E + P.E + U ; Q = W + K.E + P.E + U
Q = U (for control volume; W = 0 , P.E = 0 and K.E =0)
Internal Energy = Heat of the system
 If it is assumed that the internal energy of a perfect gas is zero at the absolute
temperature, its value at a temperature T is given by eqn :-
u = cv T
Enthalpy
 Enthalpy is a concept used in science and engineering when heat and work need to
be calculated. ... When a substance changes at constant pressure, enthalpy tells
how much heat and work was added or removed from the substance. Enthalpy is
similar to energy, but not the same.
 Enthalpy is a thermodynamic function that is equal to the total internal energy of
the system plus the product of pressure and volume. The equation is as follows:
H = E + PV.
 The heat supplied to or rejected by a system at constant pressure is the change of
enthalpy during the process
 Value of enthalpy at a given state is given by :- Q=
W + E ; now E = K.E + P.E + U ;
Q = W + K.E + P.E + U
h= q = pv + v2 /2 + gz + u (K.E=0, PE=0)
h = pv + u = u + (p/ ) or H = U + pV
for perfect gas h = cp T
Gases Lect-2
 Three states of matter that are recognized by their characteristics are solids, liquids
and gases.
 Gases
 Ideal Gas
 Perfect Gas
 Semi-perfect Gas
 Real Gas
 Ideal Gas
 Ideal gas is defined as a gas that obeys gas laws at all condition of pressure and
temperature. Ideal gases have velocity and mass. They do not have volume. When
compared to the total volume of the gas the volume occupied by the gas is negligible. It
does not condense and does not have triple point.
 Ideal gas obeys Boyle’s and Charle’s Law
(pv)T = constant (Boyle’s law) R
(v/T)p = constant (Charle’s law)
 Obeys simple eqn PV=nRT (Pressure, Volume, No. of moles, Gas constant, Temp)
 Obeys simple eqn of state
pv = RT or p =  R T now cp – cv = R
(cp /cv ) – 1 = (R/ cv ) now  = cp /cv
 - 1 = R/ cv therefore ,
Gases Lect-2
 Perfect Gas
 A perfect gas is a ideal gas whose specific heats remain constant at all temperatures cp
and cv = constant with temperature
(d/dT) (cv ) = 0
(d/dT) (cp ) = 0
 Semi-Perfect Gas
 Is an ideal gas whose specific heats vary with temperature
 Real Gas
Real gas is defined as a gas that does not obey gas laws at all standard pressure
and temperature conditions. When the gas becomes massive and voluminous it
deviates from its ideal behaviour. Real gases have velocity, volume and mass. When
they are cooled to their boiling point, they liquefy. When compared to the total
volume of the gas the volume occupied by the gas is not negligible.
 Different equations of state are used for real gases- some of them are Van de
Waals, Berthelot and Beattie-Bridgeman
Second Law of Thermodynamics Lect-2
 Need for Second Law

 First law does not give directionality of a process
 First law does mention about quality of energy, only says quantity of energy
 First law cannot identify whether process is feasible or not
 Can be enunciated in a number of ways. Some of them are as follow :-
(a) Clausius statement : Heat cannot, on its own flow from a body at lower
temperature to a body at higher temperature.
(b) Kelvin-Planck’s statement : It is impossible to construct a heat engine which

performs a complete cycle and delivers work exchanging heat from single source.
Meaning – requires two temperature reservoirs (source and sink)
 As per second law of thermodynamics , Entropy (S) is given by eqn
Clausius inequality for reversible cycle
Irreversible process for reversible adiabatic/isentropic : S2 – S1 = 0
Irreversible adiabatic process :

Lect-2
Kelvin Planck’s Statement Clausius Statement

Types of Process Lect-2
 Reversible Process and Irreversible Process

 A process is reversible if the system and surroundings cab ne restored to their
initial states by reversing the process
 A reversible process in a flow machine is possible only in the absence of fluid
friction and heat transfer with finite temperature difference\
 Since these conditions are impossible to achieve in actual process, all real
flows in turbines, compressors, fans, blowers are irreversible.
 Adiabatic Process
 No heat transfer between the system and surroundings during a process
 All turbo machines discussed here are assumed to experience only adiabatic
process
 Isentropic Process
 An adiabatic process in which there is no change in entropy is known as
reversible adiabatic or isentropic process
 Relations : (pv)γ = constant
 Non Flow Process

 A process occurring in a closed system is a non flow process.
 Fig below shows expansion of fixed mass of gas inside the cylinder of a
reciprocating engine
 Work done in an infinitesimal non flow process is given by :-
dwnfp = p dv
 Work done between the two states 1 and 2 is
wnfp =1 ꭍ2 pdv
For an adiabatic process, assuming perfect gas
wnfp = (1/  -1) (p1 v1 - p2 v2 )
Or
wnfp = cv (T1 - T2 ) from
wnfp = u1 - u2 as u = cv T (from internal energy)

 Flow Process
 A process occurring in a open system or through a control volume is a flow
process. Flow occurring in all turbo machines are flow process
 Infinitesimal work done in a reversible process is given by :-
dwfp = -v dp
 Work done between the two states 1 and 2 for a finite process
wfp = -1 ꭍ2 vdp
For an adiabatic process, assuming perfect gas
wfp = ( /  -1) (p1 v1 - p2 v2 )
Or
wfp = cp (T1 - T2 ) from
wfp = h1 - h2 as h= cp T (from enthalpy eqn for perfect gas)

Energy Equation Lect-2
 From first law of thermodynamics, energy equation is

Q = W + (E2 – E1 ) ……………………………………………………………………(1)
dE = md(1/2 * c2 ) + m(gdZ) + dU
Change in energy between two state
E2 – E1 = (U2 – U1 ) + mg (Z2 – Z1 ) + (1/2) m {(c2)2 - (c1)2 } …………..(2)
Subsititute eqn(ii) in eqn (i)
Q = W + (U2 – U1 ) + mg (Z2 – Z1 ) + (1/2) m {(c2)2 - (c1)2 } …………..(3)
Divide by m , we get specific property
q = w + (u2 – u1 ) + g (Z2 – Z1 ) + (1/2) {(c2)2 - (c1)2 } ……………………(4)

Energy Equation : Steady Flow Lect-2
 Now we know energy eqn is give by :-

Q = W + (U2 – U1 ) + mg (Z2 – Z1 ) + (1/2) m {(c2)2 - (c1)2 } …………..(3)
Divide by m , we get specific property

q = w + (u2 – u1 ) + g (Z2 – Z1 ) + (1/2) {(c2)2 - (c1)2 } ……………………(4)
 For steady follow process through turbomachines, the work term in Eqn (iii) and
eqn (iv) contains shaft work and flow work
W = Ws + (p2 v2 - p1 v1 ) ………………………………………………………………..(5)
Subsititute eqn (iv) into eqn (iii), we get
Q = Ws + p2 v2 - p1 v1 + (U2 – U1 ) + mg (Z2 – Z1 ) + (1/2) m {(c2)2 - (c1)2 } ……(iii)
Q = Ws + (U2 + p2 v2 ) – (U1 + p1 v1 ) + mg Z2 – mgZ1 + (1/2) m (c2)2 - (1/2) m (c1)2
Now H = U + pV i.e. H1 = U2 + p2 v2 and H2 = U1+ p1 v1
Q + H1 + mgZ1 + (1/2) m (c1)2 = H2 + mgZ2 + (1/2) m (c2)2 + Ws …………….(6)
q + h1 + gZ1 + (1/2) (c1)2 = h2 + gZ2 + (1/2) (c2)2 + ws ……………………………(7)
Eqn (vi) and Eqn (vii) is the steady flow energy for a control volume or an open system
Compressible Flow Machines Lect-2
 Compressible flow machines (turbines, compressors, blowers) are adiabatic

machines i.e. q = 0
 Change in potential energy (Z1 – Z2 ) is negligible as compared to changes in

enthalpy (h1 – h2 ) and K.E {(c1)2 - (c2)2 }
 Eqn (vii) is become

h1 + (1/2) (c1)2 = h2 + (1/2) (c2)2 + ws ……………………………(8)
Shaft Work is given as

ws = h1 + (1/2) (c1)2 - h2 + (1/2) (c2)2 ……………………….(9)
If c1 and c2 are very small or difference between them is negligible, then shaft work
ws = h1 - h2 ……………………………………………………………………….(10)
Energy Transformation Lect-2
 Energy transfer – shaft work input or output in a turbomachines is possible only in

rotor.
 Energy transformation can occur both in moving and fixed blades (reaction stage)
 Energy equation for stationary components of turbines, compressor and blower i.e.
nozzle blade rings, diffusers and volute casing is given as :-
As flow is adiabatic (q=0) and shaft work is absent in stationary components,

eqn (viii) will become
h1 + (1/2) (c1)2 = h2 + (1/2) (c2)2 = constant ……………………………(11)

Stagnation State Lect-2
 The stagnation state is defined as the terminal state of a fictitious, isentropic, work-
free and steady-flow process during which the macroscopic kinetic and potential
energies of the fluid particle are reduced to zero, the initial state for the process
being the static state. The macroscopic kinetic and potential energies are those
measured with respect to an arbitrary and pre-specified datum state.
 The stagnation state as specified above is not representative of any true state of
the fluid. No real process leads to the stagnation state, because no real process is
truly isentropic and perfectly free from thermal exchange with the surroundings.
 Despite the impossibility of achieving it, if proper care is taken to account for errors
in measurement and appropriate corrections incorporated, many of the properties
measured with instruments like Pitot tubes, thermocouples, etc., do provide
readings that approximate stagnation properties closely.
 Further, stagnation property changes provide ideal values against which real
machine performance can be compared. These properties and the state defined by
them (the stagnation state), are thus of great importance in turbomachinery. By
using the definition of a stagnation state, it is possible to obtain expressions for
stagnation properties in terms of static properties.
Stagnation Lect-2
 Stagnation Enthalpy.
 In adiabatic energy transformation process if the initial state is represented by

h, T, c etc and the final gas velocity is zero, the resulting value of the enthalpy
(h2 = h0 )
 Under these conditions eqn (xi) becomes

h1 + (1/2) (c1)2 = h2 + (1/2) (c2)2 = constant ………(11)
h + (1/2) (c)2 = h0 as c2 = 0 and h2 = h0…………….(12)
 Since the gas is stagnant or stationary in the final state, the quantity (h0 ) in
eqn (12) is known as stagnation enthalpy.
 Stagnation enthalpy is another form of the energy equation.
 Stagnation enthalpy is defined as enthalpy of a gas or vapour when it Is adiabatically

decelerated to zero velocity.
Stagnation Lect-2
 Stagnation Temperature.
 For a perfect gas, stagnation temperature is defined through stagnation

enthalpy
h + (1/2) (c)2 = h0 …………….(12)
We know from basic definition of enthalpy h=cpT
………………………….(13)
Tc also known as velocity temperature
and therefore; ……………… (14)

Stagnation Lect-2
 Stagnation Velocity of Sound.

By definition, local velocity of sound
Substitute value of R
……………………….(15)
 Stagnation Pressure. The pressure of a gas or fluid which is obtained by
decelerating it in a reversible adiabatic (isentropic) process to zero velocity is
known as the stagnation pressure
When pressure changes are small, the process can be assumed to be

incompressible ( = const). Then the stagnation pressure can be determined from the
Bernoulli eqn as ………………………………………(16)
Stagnation Lect-2
 Stagnation Density. For a perfect gas, its value at known values of stagnation
temperature and pressure is given by
For an isentropic process i.e.
………………………… (17)
Adiabatic Flow : Nozzles Lect-2
 Why Stator is used ?
 Recover Pressure (when acts as diffuser)

 Recover Velocity(when acts as nozzle)
 Directs the flow so that it enters rotor (compressor/turbine) at correct
angle
 Speed may exceed at supersonic, it will execute shock
 Nozzle
 Gas turbine have nozzle blade rings

 Rotor blade passages of a reaction turbines behaves as nozzle blade
passage
 Thermodynamic analysis is same for different types of nozzles irrespective
of their geometrical configuration
 Figure : represents expansion process in a nozzle
 Entry Condition
 p1 , T1 , h1 , c1 , h01 , p01 , O1
 Exit Condition
 p2 , T2 , h2 , c2 , h02 , p02 , O2
Ideal gas velocity at exit is given as :-

h + (1/2) (c)2 = h0
…........(18)
..........(19)
Actual gas velocity (irreversible adiabatic) leads to an increase in entropy and in

absence of shaft work, it is given as :-
…………………………………..(20)
………………………………..(21)
c2 is obviously lesser than isentropic velocity c2s
 Therefore, it could be concluded that the irreversible

adiabatic flow experiences :-
- an increase in entropy ∆s
- decrease in the stagnation pressure ∆p0 = p01 - p02
- and, this is a manifestation of the irreversibility due to
losses
Nozzle Efficiency : Large Pressure Ratio

 Nozzle in turbine : transforms the energy of the expanding gas (pressure
energy) into K.E.
 Nozzle efficiency is a measure of the efficiency of the transformation
 Nozzle Efficiency
…………..(22)
………….(23)
…..........(24)
…..............................(25)
Nozzle Velocity Coefficient

 As gas enters the nozzle from a large space, therefore enthalpy at the beginning
of the expansion process is considered as h01 instead of h1 and the efficiency is
defined slight different way
 ……………(26)
 Substitute eqn (22) into eqn (26), we get
……………………………..(27)
C2N = Nozzle Velocity Coefficient
Eqn (27) gives relation between Nozzle Velocity Coefficient and the Nozzle Efficiency.
Further, if the K.E term at the entry, is considered / or being negligibly small, and is
ignored, then eqn (25) reduces to eqn (27).
Nozzle Efficiency : Small Pressure Ratio

 Eqn (25)i.e. can be rewritten in the following form :-
……………….. (28)
h2 – h2s is the enthalpy loss due to irreversible flow.
For isentropic flow, eqn gi gives following eqn
If the change in pressure is small, the flow can be considered as incompressible

( = constant) . Therefore,
………………………………….. (29)
Nozzle Efficiency : Small Pressure Ratio

 Using eqn (16) i.e. we get ………….(30)
 Substituting eqn (30) and eqn (29) in eqn (28), we get
……………………….(31)
Here ∆p = p01 – p02 is the stagnation pressure loss across the nozzle due to
irreversible flow through a pressure drop of
∆p = p1 – p2
Adiabatic Flow : Diffusers Lect-2
 Diffusers
 Transformation of K.E of gases into a static pressure rise.
 Transformation process occurs in the fixed blade rings downstream of a
compressor rotor i.e. in stator
 Fig : Compression Process in a diffuser
Reversible and Irreversible adiabatic
process
 Entry Condition
- p1 , T1 , h1 , c1 , h01 , p01 , O1 (can be determined)
 Exit Condition
- p2 , T2 , h2 , c2 , h02 , p02 , O2 , p2s
 There is no change in entropy (for small
pressure rise) and loss of stagnation pressure
∆s = 0
p01 = p02s
h01 = h02s (stagnation enthalpy remains const)
h1 + (1/2) (c1)2 = h2 + (1/2) (c2s)2 ..................(31a)
c2s = velocity at the end of the isentropic diffusion
 The actual process is irreversible adiabatic. Accompanied by a stagnation

pressure loss and an increase in entropy.
 Final state in such a process is represented by a point 2.
 This is fixed by assuming the same change in K.E i.e.
(1/2)*(c12 - c2s2 ) = (1/2)*(c12 - c22 )
c2 = c2s
The irreversible diffusion on account of losses

must give a lower static pressure at the end of the
process
h01 = h02 = h02s
h2 = h2s
∆ p0 = p01 - p02
Diffuser Efficiency : Small Pressure Rise

 For small static pressure rise, the flow can be considered incompressible i.e.
density = constant
 For incompressible isentropic process 1 -2s
p01 = p02s
p1 + (1/2)* c12 *  = p2s + (1/2)* c2s2 * 
Therefore, the pressure rise is given by
……………………(32)
…………….(33)
Therefore, eqn (32) and eqn(33) give ………..(34)


 The diffuser efficiency is defined by
 ……………………..(35)
Substituting from eqn (34), eqn (35) becomes
……………………………….(36)
From eqn (31a), we get
………………………………(37)
Equations (32) and (36) give
………………………………(38)
 The quantities that can be measured are ∆ p0 and (∆p)a

 Therefore, an expression for diffuser efficiency in terms of these quantities is
more useful.
 Now eqn (35) can be re-written with the help of eqn (34) as :-
…………………………….(39)
Pressure Recovery Coefficient : Small Pressure Rise
 A Diffuser coverts Kinetic Energy of the gas into static pressure through an
area change in its passage.
 The pressure rise in a reversible diffuser for a given velocity at the entry is an
explicit function of its area ratio
Ar = A2
----
A1
Continuity for incompressible flow gives
ρ A1c1 = ρ A2c2s
∆s = 0 (reversible adiabatic)
c1 c1
---- = ---- = Ar (Ar is Area Ratio)
c2 c2s
Now we know
 Therefore above equation gives
 ntropic
Now we know
 Above diffuser efficiency equation and Actual Pressure Recover eqn yields
ηD = Cpa
----
Cps
Thus diffuser efficiency can also be defined as the ratio of
the actual and ideal coefficients of pressure ratio
Diffuser Efficiency : Large Pressure Rise
 For a large pressure rise through diffuser, the density change is appreciable
and flow is compressible.
c1 ≠ c2s
However, their energy equation is still

governed by the energy equation
h1 + (1/2) (c1)2 = h2 + (1/2) (c2s)2 ......(31a)
 Fig shows ideal and actual diffusion process

(compression process in a diffuser) to the same
Final pressure (p2 ).
Ideal/Isentropic : p2 – p1 (pressure rise)
(c12 - c2s2 ) (smaller KE change)
Actual : (c12 - c22 ) (smaller KE change)
 Diffuser Efficiency is defined by :-
…………(40)
 Eqn (31a) can be rewritten as
 Substituting above values in eqn (40)

……………………(41)
For incompressible flow this expression can be reduced to the expression derived
in eqn (35) to eqn(39). For instance eqn(38) is derived here from eqn (41)
 Therefore, from eqn(41) ,
which is eqn(38)
Work and Efficiencies : Turbine Stages Lect-2
 Work and efficiency expressions for expansion in the turbine stage are
developed in this section, Energy equation in its various forms and concepts
discussed for nozzle will be employed.
 However, shaft work is taken into account.
 On account of the expanding flow, the low

pressure side of the turbine casing is shown larger
than the high pressure side (Fig); the converse is true
for compressors
 Flow process in both turbines and compressors (nozzles and diffuser) are
assumed adiabatic (q=0). This is true in practice because of proper heat
insulation of the casings.
 Figure depicts
Entry points : p1, h1 ,T1 , c1
Stagnation points :p01, h01 ,T01 are known
Isentropic expansion :1-2s
Exit points : p2, h2s ,T2 , c2s
 On account of shaft work (ws ), there is a

drop of stagnation enthalpy (or temp).
However, entropy remains constant due to
isentropic process
 Actual expansion (irreversible adiabatic) :1-2
Exit conditions : p2, h2 ,T2 , c2 ; However, entropy
increases due to irreversibility.
 Final stagnation pressure (p02s or p02 ) cannot
be compared with its initial value p01 because of work transfer.
 Actual work at the turbine shaft : wa = h01 - h02 …………….( 42a)
and for perfect gas wa = cp (T01 - T02 ) …… (42b)
 Actual power at the turbine shaft : P= m * cp * (T01 - T02 )
Total – to – Total Efficiency

 Efficiency of Turbine = (Actual work)/(Ideal work)
For same pressure ration (pr = p1 / p2 ). Here the KE
c22s of the outgoing jet is not lost and can be
used either as input to main propulsion nozzle
or to next turbine stage in a multistage turbine
 Actual shaft work is measurable; whereas ideal
Work is hypothetical and depends on the manner
it is defined. Ideal work (ws ) is given as:-
 ws = h01 - h02s = cp (T01 - T02s)……..(43)
 Efficiency defined on the basis of this ideal work
is known as the Total-to-Total Efficiency (ηtt)
Eqn (42) and (43) give

………..(44)
Total–to–Total Efficiency
 Stagnation pressure lines for p02s and p02 are
Different; however distance between them is small.
 Stagnation pressure ratio
………………………(45)
Substituting eqn (45) into (44) we get

…………….(46)
For a given entry stagnation temperature, pressure ratio and efficiency, the
output power at the shaft is
Wa = m. * cp (T01 - T02 ) = …………….(46)
Total–to–Static Efficiency
 Some turbine stages exhaust into the atmosphere
or in a closed space like the condenser; here the KE
c22s of the outgoing jet is lost because it is not
used after the turbine. In such a case the ideal
work is the isentropic work done between the
states O1 and O2s
w’s = cp (T01 – T2s ) ...............(47)
Value of the actual shaft work is same as before
because it does not depend on the manner of
defining turbine efficiency. Therefore, total-to-static
Efficiency is given by
…………….(48)
………(49)
……..(50) For same boundary conditions

Nozzle and Turbine Stage Lect-2
Turbine Stage
Shaft work present : h01 ≠ h02
ws = wi = ideal work and wa = actual work
Nozzle
h01 = h1 + (1/2) * (c21), h02 = h2 + (1/2) * (c22)
Shaft work absent : h01 = h02
h02s = h2s + (1/2) * (c22s),
h01 = h02 + wa = h02s + ws
Effect of Reheat Lect-2
Multistage Effect or Effect of Reheat

Case-I : Single Stage expansion
A Stage with finite pressure drop
∆ws = h1 - h2s
∆wa = h1 - h2 , ᶯT = overall efficiency of the expansion
ᶯT = (Actual work output)/(Ideal work output)
= ∆wa / ∆ws
∆wa = ᶯT * ∆ws
Case-II : Multistage expansion
Let say total expansion is divided
into four stages of same stage
efficiency (ᶯst) and pressure ratio
………..(51)
wa = ᶯT * ws …………(52)
Total actual work in all stages is
……(53)
Effect of Reheat Lect-2
Multistage Effect or Effect of Reheat

Case-II : Multistage expansion (contd)
Eqn (52) and (53) give
ᶯT * ws = ᶯst * ∑∆ws = ᶯst * (∆ws1 + ∆ws2 + ∆ws3 + ∆ws4 ) ..(54)
ᶯT = ᶯst * ∑∆ws
---------- ………….(55)
ws
By geometry or slope of the const pressure line given by
………..(56)
Shows that constant pressure line must diverge towards right.

Therefore, ∑∆ws
------ > 1………(57)
ws
ᶯT > ᶯst …(58) ,and ∑∆w s is known as the reheat factor and is always greater than unity
------
ws
Infinitesimal Stage Efficiency Lect-2
Actual Performance of Stage / Polytropic Process
ᶯT > ᶯst , and ∑∆ws is known as the reheat factor and is always greater than unity
------
ws
 For true aerodynamic performance of a stage, concept of small or infinitesimal stage is
employed
 A stage with a finite pressure drop is a finite stage. Here finite stage is / can be divided
into an small infinite number of small stages of the same efficiencies which is independent
of reheat effect.
 ᶯp = infinitesimal stage efficiency for a perfect gas, efficiency of
such small stage is:-
….(59)
 Expanding the binomial expression on the right hand side and ignoring terms
beyond second order,
Substituting from eqn (50) for dTs
…….. ….(60)
This actual process on integrating yields,
………….(61) this relation defines the actual expansion line in a

finite stage or multistage machine between two given states 1 and 2 (refer above Fig)
 Here we have assumed ᶯp (small stage or infinitesimal efficiency) is constant.
 However, ᶯp needs to be determined for finite states
 Integrating eqn (60) i.e.
………….. (62)
 ………….. (62)
Irreversible adiabatic (actual) expansion process can be considered

as equivalent to a polytropic process (hence the term Polytropic
Efficiency) with an index n. Thus eqn (62) , can be written as
…………(63)
…………(64)
When ᶯp = 1, n = γ. Actual expansion line coincides with the isentropic expansion and
eqn (60), (61) and (62) are valid for an isentropic process.
 Efficiency of a finite stage can now be expressed in terms of the small stage efficiency.
 Assuming perfect gas and taking static values of temp and pressure
……………(65)
…………..(66)
Eqn (65) is also applicable to a multistage turbine. In that case ᶯst and pr are replaced by the
overall efficiency and overall pressure ratio of the machine. Eqn (65) is useful because it can
predict efficiencies of various finite expansion process with different values of the pressure
ratio and small stage efficiency. ᶯT > ᶯst and ᶯst > ᶯp
Multistage Machine : Constant Pressure Ratio Lect-2
 Let there be k stages with a constant stage pr ratio

and assuming ᶯp = polytropic efficiency=const
…….(67)
The overall pressure ratio of the entire machine is

given by
……..68
Overall efficiency of the machine is
…………..69
Figure : Expansion process in
the stages of a multistage turbine
Multistage Machine Lect-2
The stage work is proportional to the gas temperature

at its entry. Therefore, it goes on decreasing in the
subsequent stages
∆T = T1 – T2
……….(70)
……….(71)
………..(72)
…………(73)
………….(74)
………….(75)
……(76)
………………(77)
Substituting for C from eqn (71), eqn (77) becomes, …….(78)
Multistage Machine : Constant Stage Work Lect-2
 Assume the actual work in each stage is constant,

or same, the total tem drop (∆T)T is equally divided
in k stages.
 Stage temp drop is given by :-

……..(79)
Value of the pressure ratios of various stages can be

Obtained.
For ith stage:-
……………………….(80)
Since all quantities except Ti are constant in the eqn (80), each subsequent stage
will have higher pressure ratio.
Work and Efficiencies : Compressor Stages Lect-2
 Work and efficiency expressions in the compressor stages are developed.

Concepts developed earlier for diffuser (compressor) are also employed here,
remembering the presence of shaft work.
 On account of the compressing the flow, the

higher pressure side of the compressor casing is
shown smaller than the low pressure side
 Flow process in both turbines and compressors

(nozzles and diffuser) are assumed adiabatic (q=0). This is true in practice
because of proper heat insulation of the casings.
 Compression process is assumed to be adiabatic.
 Due to transfer of energy from rotor or rotors to the gas its properties
changes from p1 h1 p01 etc to p2 h2 p02
 wa = actual work supplied to the compressor

 ws = isentropic work transfer – represented by point2s
 Initial State : p1 h1 T1 c1 O1
 Actual Compression : 1-2
 Isentropic compression : 1-2s
 Exit State : p2 h2s T2s c2s O2s (reversible adiabatic)
 Exit State : p2 h2 T2 c2 O2 (irreversible)
 wa = h02 – h01 …………………………….(81a)

wa = cp (T02 – T01) for perfect gas ……(81b)
ws = h02s – h01 ……………………..(81c)
ws = cp (T02s – T01) for perfect gas ……(81d)
Actual power required P = ṁ* wa
Fig : Ideal and Actual
compression process
in a compressor stage
Total-to-Total Efficiency
 wa = h02 – h01 …………………………….(81a)
wa = cp (T02 – T01) for perfect gas ……(81b)
ws = h02s – h01 ……………………..(81c)
ws = cp (T02s – T01) for perfect gas ……(81d)

…….(82)
……(83)
…….(84)
This efficiency is used in compressor stages where the gas velocities at the entry and
exit are significant and velocity temperatures Tc1 and Tc2 cannot be ignored
Shaft Power required = Wa = ṁ*cp *(T02 – T01) = ṁ*cp * (T01/ᶯtt) * (pr0y-1/y -1)…..(85)
If above equation is divided by mechanical efficiency we get power of the prime
mover
Static-to-Static Efficiency
 If a gas velocity at entry and exit of a stage are almost
equal or their magnitudes are negligible, the actual and ideal
works are
 Efficiency based on the above values is known as static-to-

Static efficiency (ᶯss)
………….(86)
…..(87)
 Both Efficiency i.e. Total-to-Total and Static-to-Static have almost identical values
 Eqn (87) is also applicable to a multi-stage compressor
Finite Stage Efficiency : Compressor Stages Lect-2
 A compressor stage with a finite pressure rise is known as finite stage

 Efficiency and Work relations derived for compressor stage is also applicable for
finite stage
 Stage work is a function of the initial temperature (T01 or T1) and pressure ratio.
 Therefore, for the same pressure ratio, the stage requires a higher value of work
with higher entry temperature. As a result, compressor stages in the higher
temperature region suffer on account of this fact.
 Equation dw = -vdp , also suggest that the compression work for the same pressure
rise is large at larger values of the specific volume of the gas.
 All above facts have a cumulative impact on the efficiency of a multi-stage
compressor
Preheat Effect : Multi-Stage Compressor Lect-2
 Fig : Total compression between p1 and p2 divided into four stages

of the same pressure ratio and efficiency
………..(88a)
………..(88b)
equating two values of work eqn (88a) and (88b)
……(89), now using geometry and in compressor ideal work required
is less than actual work required due to irreversibility. Therefore, ……(90)
As a result of eqn (89), ᶯc (overall efficiency) < ᶯst (stage efficiency) ……….(91).
Due to the thermodynamic effect called “preheat”, gas is heated due to small constant
pressure processes AX, BY, CZ andD2. This is only internal phenomenon and the
compression process still remains adiabatic-reappearance of losses of ith stage on kth
Infinitesimal Stage Efficiency : Compressor Lect-2
 Finite compressor stage made up of small stages (infinitesimal stages)
 Each stage have ᶯp (infinitesimal stage efficiency)
 Applying eqn (91) (ᶯc (overall efficiency) < ᶯst (stage efficiency))
ᶯst < ᶯp
Here ᶯst = overall efficiency
ᶯp = individual stage (infinitesimal) efficiency
 When we consider infinitesimal stage, pressure rise is

very small and is independent of the thermodynamic effect.
Therefore, it’s a true measure of the aerodynamic performance of
the compressor.
…….(92)
………..(93)
….(94)
Putting eqn (93) and (94) into eqn(92), we get
…………………..(95)
Eqn (95) is applicable for the actual compression process

along 1-2. On integrating it gives
…………………(96) this hold good
for actual compression process in a finite stage or multiple stage machine. ᶯp remains
constant during the compression process.
 Therefore, applying eqn (96) for states 1-2
…………… (97)
 Taking logs both sides
……………(98)
 Assume irreversible adiabatic compression 1-2 as

Equivalent to polytropic process with index n , eqn (97)
can be written as :-
……….(99)
……….(100)
 Efficiency of a finite compressor stage can be related to the small stage

efficiency
………..(101)
Therefore, from eqn (86) the stage efficiency is given by
For a multi-stage compressor, ᶯst is replaced by the overall efficiency ᶯc of the

compressor and pr by the overall pressure ratio prc
.................(102)
Work and Efficiency : Multi-Stage Compressor Lect-2
Constant Stage Pressure Ratio

 Let there be k stage and various stages pressures from p to pk+1
 The overall pressure ratio of the machine is

 ……….(103)
 Overall efficiency
 ……(104)
Work and Efficiency : Multi-Stage Compressor Lect-2
Constant Stage Work

 Generally in a multi-stage machine the assumption of equal stage temperature rise
(work) is often made.
 The total temperature rise in the m/c for a

given overall pressure ratio (prc) and ᶯp is known
for k stages.
 Temperature rise per stage is

……….(105)
Pressure and Stage Efficiency of various stages or let

us say for the ith stage
………(106)…Increase in gas temp(Ti) , the pressure ratio of

of the stage decreases from L.P end to the H.P end
EQUIVALENCE RATIO
(Gas Turbine Combustion & SI Engines)

 Gas Turbine Combustion. The Equivalence Ratio in Gas Turbine Combustion is

defined as the ratio of the actual fuel/air ratio to stoichiometric fuel/air ratio.
 Equivalence Ratio (φ) = ____Actual fuel –air ratio___ =
Stoichiometric fuel –air ratio

 Stoichiometric Combustion occurs when all the oxygen is consumed in the reaction,
and there is no molecular oxygen (O2) in the products.
 Conditions
 If the Equivalence Ratio (ϕ) = 1 , means combustion is stoichiometric.
 If the Equivalence Ratio (ϕ) = < 1 , means combustion is lean with excess air.
 If the Equivalence Ratio (ϕ) = > 1 , means combustion is rich with incomplete
combustion.
 The equivalence ratio, ϕ, in the primary zone will be close to unity and the
temperature of the gases and products of combustion leaving the primary zone is
in the order of 2000 K. At these temperatures, the products will contain radicals
and fuel species in the form of unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) and CO, due to
dissociation of carbon dioxide and water.
 Should the combustion gases pass directly to the dilution zone, they will be
quenched, due to the large amount of air being added in the dilution zone. They
will appear as pollutants and give an indication of poor combustion inefficiency.
 The intermediate zone reduces these species or radicals by introducing small
amounts of air, which lower the temperature and encourage the formation of
carbon dioxide and water vapour.
EQUIVALENCE RATIO
(Gas Turbine Combustion & SI Engines)

 SI Engines. The air-fuel equivalence ratio λ (or its reciprocal ϕ = 1/λ)
 Equivalence Ratio (λ) = Stoichiometric fuel –air ratio

Actual fuel –air ratio

NEXT VIRTUAL LECTURE : Tutorials
 Next lecture, we will try to solve problems related to

 Thermodynamics of
Real Engine Cycle
 Nozzle and Diffuser
 Polytropic Efficiency, Work, Thrust, SFC, Stage Efficiency,
Power etc

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TURBOMACHINERY AEAS : 407

COURSE OUTCOMES (CO)

Name of Book Author

Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion Hill and Peterson

Gas Turbine Engine H Cohen, GFC Rogers , HIH Saravanamuttoo

Turbines, Compressors and Fans S M Yahya, Fourth Edition

Fluid Mechanics, Thermodynamics of S L Dixon, Pergamon Press, 1996

Principles of Turbomachinery Seppo A. Korpela, Wiley Publications

Fundamentals of Turbomachinery BK Venkanna

Aircraft Propulsion : Science of making thrust to fly : Prof. Bhaskar Roy

 Axial Flow Turbines – Aerodynamics

 In this lecture, we studied

 In this lecture, we will study

 Closed System (Control Mass)

 Open System (Control Volume)

The thermodynamic state of a system is defined by specifying values of a set of

 Properties may be extensive or intensive or specific

 Intensive : Do not depend on the quantity of matter

 Extensive : Extensive properties are additive i.e. dependent on size. Volume is an

First Law of Thermodynamics

 dQ-dW : is independent of the path of process; hence a change in the property of

Heat transfer = work + change in energy

Specific Heats of Gases

 = 1.4 (air),  = 1.264-1.4 (superheated steam),  = 1.67 (helium),

 Need for Second Law

 Can be enunciated in a number of ways. Some of them are as follow :-

(b) Kelvin-Planck’s statement : It is impossible to construct a heat engine which

Irreversible adiabatic process :

Kelvin Planck’s Statement Clausius Statement

 Reversible Process and Irreversible Process

 Non Flow Process

wnfp = u1 - u2 as u = cv T (from internal energy)

wfp = cp (T1 - T2 ) from

wfp = h1 - h2 as h= cp T (from enthalpy eqn for perfect gas)

 From first law of thermodynamics, energy equation is

q = w + (u2 – u1 ) + g (Z2 – Z1 ) + (1/2) {(c2)2 - (c1)2 } ……………………(4)

 Now we know energy eqn is give by :-

Divide by m , we get specific property

 Compressible flow machines (turbines, compressors, blowers) are adiabatic

 Change in potential energy (Z1 – Z2 ) is negligible as compared to changes in

 Eqn (vii) is become

Shaft Work is given as

 Energy transfer – shaft work input or output in a turbomachines is possible only in

As flow is adiabatic (q=0) and shaft work is absent in stationary components,

h1 + (1/2) (c1)2 = h2 + (1/2) (c2)2 = constant ……………………………(11)

 In adiabatic energy transformation process if the initial state is represented by

 Under these conditions eqn (xi) becomes

 Stagnation enthalpy is another form of the energy equation.

 Stagnation enthalpy is defined as enthalpy of a gas or vapour when it Is adiabatically

 For a perfect gas, stagnation temperature is defined through stagnation

We know from basic definition of enthalpy h=cpT

Tc also known as velocity temperature

and therefore; ……………… (14)

 Stagnation Velocity of Sound.

When pressure changes are small, the process can be assumed to be

For an isentropic process i.e.

 Why Stator is used ?

 Recover Pressure (when acts as diffuser)

 Gas turbine have nozzle blade rings

 Figure : represents expansion process in a nozzle