Chapter 4 Radiation and Antennas

LINES, FIELDS AND WAVES
Chapter 4
Radiation and Antennas
Huynh Phu Minh Cuong

hpmcuong@hcmut.edu.vn
Department of Telecommunications
Faculty of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
1
Ho Chi Minh city University of Technology
10/26/22 1
Chapter 4 Radiation and Antennas
Objectives
Upon learning the material presented in this chapter, you should be
able to:
1. Calculate the electric and magnetic fields of waves radiated by a
dipole antenna.
2. Characterize the radiation of an antenna in terms of its radiation
pattern, directivity, beamwidth, and radiation resistance.
3. Apply the Friis transmission formula to a free-space
communication system.
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Chapter 4 Radiation and Antennas
Chapter Contents
Overview of Pane-wave
Antenna overview
4-1 The Hertzian Dipole
4-2 Antenna Radiation Characteristics
4-3 Half-Wave Dipole Antenna
4-4 Dipole of Arbitrary Length
4-5 Effective Area of a Receiving Antenna, 422
4-6 Friis Transmission Formula, 427
Summary
Problems
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Unbounded EM Waves
 A time-varying electric field produces a magnetic field and, conversely, a time-
varying magnetic field produces an electric field.
 This cyclic pattern often results in electromagnetic (EM) waves propagating
through free space and in material media.
 When a wave propagates through a homogeneous medium without interacting with
obstacles or material interfaces, it is said to be unbounded.
 Light waves emitted by the sun and radio transmissions by antennas are good
examples.
 Unbounded waves may propagate in both lossless and lossy media.
 Waves propagating in a lossless medium (e.g., air and perfect dielectrics) are
similar to those on a lossless transmission line in that they do not attenuate.
 When propagating in a lossy medium (material with nonzero conductivity, such as
water), part of the power carried by an EM wave gets converted into heat.
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Unbounded EM Waves
 A wave produced by a localized source, such as an antenna, expands outwardly in
the form of a spherical wave
 However, To an observer very far away from the source, the wavefront of the
spherical wave appears approximately planar, as if it were part of a uniform
plane wave with identical properties at all points in the plane tangent to the
wavefront.
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2.1 Time-Harmonic Fields
 Time-varying electric and magnetic fields (E, D, B, and H) and their
sources (the charge density ρv and current density J) generally
depend on the spatial coordinates (x, y, z) and the time variable t
 The vector phasor : (x, y, z) and
the instantaneous field: E(x, y, z; t) are related as
 Similar definitions apply to D, B, and H, as well as to ρv and J.
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 Maxwell’s equations in the phasor domain:
 To derive these equations we used D = E and B = μH, and the fact

that for time-harmonic quantities, differentiation in the time domain
corresponds to multiplication by jω in the phasor domain.
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Complex Permittivity
 In free space:
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2.2 Plane-Wave Propagation in Lossless Media
Uniform Plane Waves
 To find the magnetic field associated with this wave, apply:
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Uniform Plane Waves
 Thus, the electric and magnetic fields of a +z - propagating plane wave with field
along x direction are:
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Uniform Plane Waves
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Uniform Plane Waves
 In lossless media: and are in phase
 Phase velocity of the wave is:
 its wavelength is :
where c is the velocity of light and η0 is called the intrinsic impedance of free space.
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Uniform Plane Waves
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General Relation between E and H k
H
: Propagation unit vector
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2.6 Electromagnetic Power Density
 For any wave with an electric field E and magnetic field H, the Poynting
vector S is defined as
S = E× H (W/m2)
 Since both E and H are functions of time, so is the Poynting vector S.
 The direction of S is along the wave’s direction of propagation. Thus, S
represents the power per unit area (or power density) carried by the
wave.
 If the wave is incident upon an aperture of area A with outward surface
unit vector ˆn, then the total power that flows through or is intercepted by
the aperture is
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The average power density of the wave, Sav, is the time-average value of S:
This expression may be regarded as the electromagnetic equivalent for the

time-average power carried by a transmission line, namely
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2.6.1 PlaneWave in a Lossless Medium
 The wave can be considered as the sum of two waves, one comprising fields (Ex , Hy ) and
another comprising fields (Ey , Hx ).
 Average power density
which states that power flows in the z direction with average power density equal to the
sum of the average power densities of the (Ex , Hy ) and (Ey , Hx ) waves.
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Overview
An antenna is a transducer that converts a guided wave propagating on a transmission line into an
electromagneticwave propagating in an unbounded medium (usually free space), or vice versa. Figure 9-1
shows how a wave is launched by a hornlike antenna, with the horn acting as the transition segment
between the waveguide and free space.
Signal path between a shipboard transmitter (Tx) and a submarine receiver (Rx).
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Overview
 Antennas are made in various shapes

 The radiation and impedance properties of an antenna are governed by its shape, size, and material
properties.
 The dimensions of an antenna are usually measured in units of λ of the wave it is launching or receiving
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Overview
 The antenna radiation pattern, or simply the antenna pattern characterizes the
relative distribution of power radiated by an antenna.
 An isotropic antenna is a hypothetical antenna that radiates equally in all directions,
and it is often used as a reference radiator when describing the radiation properties
of real antennas.
 Most antennas are reciprocal devices, exhibiting the same radiation pattern for
transmission as for reception.
 The radiation properties include its directional radiation pattern and the associated
polarization state of the radiated wave when the antenna is used in the transmission
mode, also called the antenna polarization.
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Overview
 Radiation sources: Radiation sources fall into two categories: currents and aperture
fields.
 Far-field region: The wave radiated by a point source is spherical in nature,
with the wavefront expanding outward at a rate equal to the phase velocity
up (or the velocity of light c if the medium is free space). If R, the distance
between the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna, is sufficiently
large such that the wavefront across the receiving aperture may be
considered planar (Fig. 9-3), then the receiving aperture is said to be in the
far-field (or far-zone) region of the transmitting point source.
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 A Hertzian dipole is a thin, linear conductor whose length l is very short compared with the
wavelength λ and should not exceed λ/50.
Even though the current has to go to zero at the two ends of the dipole, we shall treat it as
constant across its entire length.
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 The customary approach for finding the electric and magnetic fields at a point Q in
space due to radiation by a current source is through the retarded vector potential A.
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 The customary approach for finding the electric and magnetic fields at a point Q in
space due to radiation by a current source is through the retarded vector potential A.
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 We need to write A in terms of its spherical coordinate components
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 We need to write A in terms of its spherical coordinate components
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 4-1.1 Far-Field Approximation
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 4-1.2 Power Density
 Given E and H, the time-average Poynting vector of the radiated wave, which is also called
the power density, can be obtained by
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 4-1.2 Power Density
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 4-1.2 Power Density Normalized radiation intensity
Radiation patterns of a short dipole
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 4-1.2 Power Density Normalized radiation intensity
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 An antenna pattern describes the far-field directional properties of an antenna
when measured at a fixed distance from the antenna.
 In general, the antenna pattern is a three-dimensional plot that displays the strength
of the radiated field or power density as a function of direction, with direction being
specified by the zenith angle θ and the azimuth angle φ.
 The differential power radiated by the antenna through an elemental area dA is
 In a spherical coordinate system
 The solid angle dΩ associated

with dA, defined as the subtended
area divided by R2, is given by
(steradians)
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 The total power radiated by an antenna through a spherical surface at a
fixed distance R is obtained by integrating dPrad over that surface
Prad is called the total radiated power.
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 For the Hertzian dipole, Smax is given by
Prad is:
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4-2.1 Antenna Pattern
 The normalized radiation intensity F(θ,φ) characterizes the directional pattern of the
energy radiated by an antenna
 The elevation plane, also called the

θ plane, is a plane corresponding to
a constant value of φ. For example,
φ = 0 defines the x–z plane and φ =
90◦ defines the y–z plane.
 The azimuth plane, also called
the φ plane, is specified by θ =
90◦ and corresponds to the x–y
plane.
Three-dimensional pattern of a narrow-beam antenna

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4-2.1 Antenna Pattern
Three-dimensional pattern of a narrow-beam antenna

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4-2.2 Beam Dimensions
 The pattern solid angle Ωp describes the equivalent width of the main lobe of the antenna
pattern.
 The pattern solid angle characterizes the directional properties of the three-
dimensional radiation pattern.
 It is defined as the integral of the normalized radiation intensity F(θ,φ) over a sphere:
 To characterize the width of the main lobe in a given plane, the term used is beamwidth.
 The half-power beamwidth, or simply the beamwidth β, is defined as the angular width of the
main lobe between the two angles at which the magnitude of F(θ,φ) isequal to half of its peak
value (or−3 dB on a decibel scale).
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4-2.2 Beam Dimensions
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4-2.3 Antenna Directivity
The directivity D of an antenna is defined as the ratio of its maximum normalized radiation
intensity, Fmax (which by definition is equal to 1), to the average value of F(θ,φ) over all
directions (4π space):
where Sav = Prad/(4πR2) is the average value of the radiated power density and is equal to the total power
radiated by the antenna, Prad, divided by the surface area of a sphere of radius R.
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Example 9-1: Antenna Radiation Properties
Example 9-2: Directivity of a Hertzian Dipole
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4-2.5 Radiation Resistance
In general, input impedance Zin of an antenna consists of a resistive component Rin and a
reactive component Xin:
 Rin can be defined as the sum of a radiation resistance Rrad and a loss resistance
where I0 is the amplitude of the sinusoidal current exciting the antenna.

 The radiation efficiency is the ratio of Prad to Pt, or
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Example 9-3: Radiation Resistance and Efficiency of a Hertzian Dipole
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 The half-wave dipole consists of a thin
wire fed at its center by a generator
connected to the antenna terminals via
a transmission line.
 The current flowing through the wire
has a symmetrical distribution with
respect to the center of the dipole, and
the current is zero at its ends.
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 The far field due to radiation by the entire antenna is obtained
by integrating the fields from all of the Hertzian dipoles making
up the antenna:
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 Recall, Hertzian dipole:
 Adapt that expression to an infinitesimal dipole segment of length

dz, excited by a current I(z) and located at a distance s from the
observation point Q
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For distance
For phase
The following expressions are obtained:
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4-3.1 Directivity of λ/2 Dipole:
4-3.2 Radiation resistance of λ/2 Dipole:
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4-4 Effective Area of a Receiving Antenna
 So far, antennas have been treated as directional radiators of energy.
Now, we examine the reverse process, namely how a receiving
antenna extracts energy from an incident wave and delivers it to a
load.
 The ability of an antenna to capture energy from an incident wave
of power density Si (W/m2) and convert it into an intercepted
power Pint (W) for delivery to a matched load is characterized by
the effective area Ae:
 Other commonly used names for Ae include effective aperture

and receiving cross section.
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Receiving antenna represented by an equivalent circuit.
 The antenna
receiving process
may be modeled in
terms of a Th´evenin
equivalent circuit
consisting of a
voltage Voc in series
with the antenna
input impedance Zin.
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 To maximize power transfer to the load, the load impedance must
be chosen such that ZL = Z∗in, or RL = Rrad and XL = −Xin.
 In that case:
 Since the antenna is lossless, all the intercepted power Pint ends up in
the load resistance RL. Hence,
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The short-dipole antenna
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4-5 Friis Transmission Formula
 The transmitting and receiving antennas have effective areas At

and Ar and radiation efficiencies ξt and ξr, respectively.
 Our objective is to find a relationship between Pt, the power
supplied to the transmitting antenna, and Prec, the power
delivered to the receiver.
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 We start by treating the transmitting antenna as a lossless isotropic
radiator.
 The power density incident upon the receiving antenna at a distance
R from an isotropic transmitting antenna is simply equal to the
transmitter power Pt divided by the surface area of a sphere of
radius R:
Hence,
Sr : receiving power density
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 On the receiving-antenna side:
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LINES, FIELDS AND WAVES

Huynh Phu Minh Cuong

 Similar definitions apply to D, B, and H, as well as to ρv and J.

 To derive these equations we used D = E and B = μH, and the fact

 Phase velocity of the wave is:

This expression may be regarded as the electromagnetic equivalent for the

 Antennas are made in various shapes

Radiation patterns of a short dipole

 In a spherical coordinate system

 The solid angle dΩ associated

Prad is called the total radiated power.

 The elevation plane, also called the

Three-dimensional pattern of a narrow-beam antenna

Three-dimensional pattern of a narrow-beam antenna

Example 9-2: Directivity of a Hertzian Dipole

where I0 is the amplitude of the sinusoidal current exciting the antenna.

 Adapt that expression to an infinitesimal dipole segment of length

The following expressions are obtained:

4-3.2 Radiation resistance of λ/2 Dipole:

 Other commonly used names for Ae include effective aperture

 The transmitting and receiving antennas have effective areas At

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