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Chapter 2

The Global and Cultural Contexts

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 Learning Objectives

• Define culture and its three levels and explain the role it plays in
leadership
• Apply the following models of national culture to leadership situations:
– Hall’s cultural context
– Hofstede’s dimensions
– Trompenaars’s model
– GLOBE
• Identify the impact of gender on leadership
• Address how leaders can develop a cultural mindset
• Present the steps organizations can take to become more multicultural

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 The Leadership Question

What is considered effective leadership depends

on the cultural context. Do you think there are
some leadership “gold-standards,” some
characteristics and behaviors that leaders in all
cultures must demonstrate? If so, what do think
they are?

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 Defining Elements of Culture

• Shared by group members

• Transferred from one member to
another
• Affect thinking and behavior
• Stable and dynamic

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 Levels of Culture
National culture

Group culture Group culture

Organizational Organizational
culture culture
Organizational
Group culture culture Group culture
Organizational
culture

Group culture

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 Hall’s Cultural Context
• High-context cultures are those in which the
rules of communication are primarily
transmitted through the use of contextual
elements (i.e., body language, a person's status,
and tone of voice) and are not explicitly stated.
• This is in direct contrast to low-context
cultures, in which information is
communicated primarily through language and
rules are explicitly spelled out.

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 Hall’s Cultural Context

High context cultures Low context cultures

• Rely on environmental • Rely on explicit verbal and
cues and context written messages
• Subtle cues convey • Specific and clear words
message convey message
• Trust is more important • Formal and legal contracts
than legal and formal guide action
contract • Direct communication and
• Indirect communication specific instructions

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 Hall’s High- and Low-Context Typology
of Culture

Source: Based on Beyond Culture by Edward T. Hall, copyright © 1976, 1981 by Edward T. Hall. Used by
permission of Doubleday, a division of Random House, Inc. For online information about other Random House,
Inc. books and authors, see
the Internet Web Site at http://www.randomhouse.com 3-9
Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions

• High vs. Low Power distance

• Individualism—collectivism
• High vs. Low Uncertainty avoidance
• Masculinity vs. Femininity
• Short vs. Long term Time orientation

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 Low/High power distance

• Power Distance Index: extent to which the less powerful

members of organizations and institutions accept and expect

that power is distributed unequally.

• This represents inequality, but defined from below, not from

above.

• All societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than

others.
Low/High power distance

Extremes of Hofstede’s ‘power distance’ dimension

 Individualism versus collectivism

Degree to which individuals are integrated into groups.

– On the individualist side there are societies in which the ties between
individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after him/herself
and his/her immediate family.
– On the collectivist side, there are societies in which people, from birth
onwards, are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended
families which continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning
loyalty.
 Individualism/ Collectivism

Extremes of Hofstede’s ‘collectivist/individualist’ dimension

 Masculinity versus femininity

Distribution of roles between the genders.

– Women’s values differ less between societies than men’s values

modest and caring

– Men’s values from one country to another differ significantly

– From very assertive, competitive and to modest and caring

• The assertive pole has been called “masculine” and

the modest, caring pole “feminine”.
Masculinity/Femininity

Extremes of the ‘masculine/feminine’ dimension

 Low/High Uncertainty avoidance

• Uncertainty Avoidance: deals with a society’s tolerance for

uncertainty and ambiguity and indicates to what extent a culture
programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or
comfortable in unstructured situations.
• Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and
different from usual.
– Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such
situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the
philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth. People in
uncertainty avoiding countries are also more emotional, and motivated by
inner nervous energy.
– Uncertainty accepting cultures, are more tolerant of opinions different
from what they are used to; they try to have as few rules as possible, and on
the philosophical and religious level they are relativist and allow many
currents to flow side by side.
 Low/High Uncertainty avoidance

High Low

Extremes for Hofstede’s ‘uncertainty avoidance’ dimension

 Short/Long Term Orientation

• Short-term orientation:
– Focus on achieving quick results.
– a relatively small propensity to save for the future
– Focus on the current gain
– Exhibit great respect for traditions
• Long-term orientation:
– thriftiness, and perseverance in achieving results
– a strong propensity to save and invest
– Less focus on current gain
– people believe that truth depends very much on situation, context
and time.
– Show an ability to adapt traditions to changing conditions
Short/Long Term Orientation

Hofstede’s fifth dimension

 Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions
https://www.hofstede-insights.com/fi/product/compare-count
ries/

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Global Leadership & Organizational Behavior
Effectiveness (GLOBE) Dimensions

• Power distance: degree to which power is distributed

• Uncertainty avoidance: extent of reliance on norms
and rules

• Humane orientation: degree to which fairness and

kindness are valued

• Collectivism I (institutional): degree to which

collective action and distribution of resources is
valued

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 GLOBE Dimensions

• Collectivism II (in-group): degree to which individual

are close to their team or organization
• Assertiveness: degree of directness and confrontation
• Gender egalitarianism: extent of gender differentiation
• Future orientation: extent of investment in the future
rather than the past or present
• Performance orientation: degree to which performance
is valued

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 GLOBE Country Clusters
Source: Based on information in House et al. 2004

H: In-group collectivism H: Performance

L: Future orientation, orientation and
Conf
d le ucia institutional and in-
gender egalitarianism,
Mid t Asia n group collectivism
uncertainty avoidance Eas o
o cc Sout
Mor ait Kore
h
Kuw y Hon a H: Humane orientation
e g Ko

So Asia ines
H: Humane Turk t Sing n
a p or g
In-group collectivism

So rica

ut
Egyp r

Ph don and

he
Af uth
orientation e

Af
Taiw

ili p e s
In il
Qata

Hungary Z (Bla ca

rn
an

Albania N ba k)
Poland Za mib we

Th alays

p
ri
Chin

im c

M India
a

a
Hi: In-group

a b
Greece Nig mbia a
i
Japa

ia
n collectivism

Russia eria
L: Performance

Ira

ia Ecuador
H: Assertiveness, in-group

n
and future,
Kazakhstan

El Salvador

Guatemala
Venezuela
Costa Rica
Argentina

Columbia
Slovenia
collectivism, gender
Georgia

America
Eastern

institutional
Europe

Mexico
Bolivia
Brazil

Latin
egalitarianism collectivism,
L: performance orientation uncertainty
avoidance

La rop
Eu Italy n o
tin e
Angl
USA

Eu rdic
Sp ael

Germ ada

Sw nma e
ai

anic Can nd
Isr nce al

H: Future orientation,

Fin ede rk
De rop
No
Fr rtug rla

H: Performance orientation,

lan n
Euro la institutional
a
Po itze

pe Ire and

d
assertiveness, future
Sw nd ch)

collectivism, gender
Aust Engl h
Germ ria
orientation, and uncertainty egalitarianism, and
Sout
(F

avoidance
Swit any uncertainty avoidance
re

a
zer Afr i c )
n

L: Humane orientation
(Ger land
L: Assertiveness, in-
ite
m an (Wh group collectivism
T ) New
H: Performance orientation, Neth he nd
assertiveness, future erlan Zeala lia
ds ra
orientation, uncertainty
avoidance
Aust H: Performance
L: Human orientation, in- orientation
group collectivism L: In-group
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25
2-
 GLOBE
Cultural Endorsed Leadership Theory - CLT
• Charismatic and value-based: Leadership based on
the ability to inspire and motivate followers through
core values and high-performance expectations
• Team oriented: Leadership focused on team building
and developing a common goal
• Participative: Leadership based on involving followers
in decision making

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 GLOBE
Cultural Endorsed Leadership Theory - CLT

• Humane orientated: Leadership based on

consideration for followers through compassion
and generosity
• Autonomous: Leadership based on
independence and individualism
• Self-protective: Leadership focused on safety
and security of individual and group through
self-enhancement and face saving
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 GLOBE Cultural Leadership
Profiles

• Confucian Asia
– Self-protective; team oriented; humane; charismatic
• Southern Asia
– Self-protective; charismatic; humane; team oriented;
autonomous
• Latin America
– Charismatic; team oriented; self-protective;
participative

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 GLOBE Cultural Leadership
Profiles

• Nordic Europe
– Charismatic; participative; team oriented;
autonomous
• Anglo
– Charismatic; participative; humane; team oriented
• Germanic Europe
– Autonomous; charismatic; participative; humane

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 GLOBE Cultural Leadership
Profiles

• Latin Europe
– Charismatic; team oriented; participative; self-protective
• Eastern Europe
– Autonomous; self-protective; charismatic; team
oriented
• Africa
– Humane; charismatic; team oriented; participative
• Middle East
– Self-protective; humane; autonomous; charismatic
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 Current State of Women in
Organizations

• In United States, women:

– Make up 50% or the workforce
– 58% work outside the home
– Hold 10% of executive positions
– Earn 77% of men’s income
– Hold 15.2% of corporate board positions
– Hold 4% (200 out of 500) of CEO positions in Fortune
500
– Hold only two of the highest paid executives positions
– Tend to be less satisfied and unhappier as they get older
(compared to men)
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 Suggested Causes for Gender
Inequality in Organizations

Likely causes Unlikely causes

• Challenges in • Gender difference in
balancing work and style or effectiveness
life
• Women are less
• Persistent gender
committed to work
stereotypes about role
of women • Women are less
• Discrimination educated or
experienced

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 The Leadership Question
Revisited

• There are some universal factors in

leadership
• Different individuals and groups may
need and expect different things from their
leader
• To be effective leaders must demonstrate
integrity, honesty, and trustworthiness

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 Definition of Cultural Mindset

A cultural mindset is a way of thinking

that allows the individual to be aware of
and open to culture and how it impacts his
or her own and others’ thinking and
behaviors.

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 The Cultural Mindset
• Self-awareness of your own culture
• Curiosity about, and awareness and knowledge of, others’ culture
• Including culture in thinking and problem solving
Cognition • Adopting multiple cultural lenses

• Self-presentation
• Verbal and nonverbal cues
• Interpersonal interactions
Behavior • Address cultural issues

• Interpersonal skills
• Communication skills
Skills • Language competencies

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