Topic 4

Chapter 3
Leadership
Behaviour and
Motivation
 Topic Outline
i. Leadership Behaviour And Styles
ii. University Of Michigan And Ohio State
University Studies
iii. The Leadership Grid
iv. Leadership And Major Motivation Theories
v. Content Motivation Theories
vi. Process Motivation Theories
vii. Reinforcement Theories
 Leadership Behaviour
• By the late 1940’s leadership research had
shifted from trait theory paradigm to behavioural
theory paradigm.
> Focusing on what the leader says and does.

• Researchers attempted to identify behaviour of

effective leaders but found there is no ‘one’ best
style of leadership.
 Leadership Style
• Leaders’ behaviour is based on their traits and
skills, directly affecting their behaviour and
relationship with employees.
• Leading by example is important.
• Leadership style is the combination of traits,
skills, and behaviours leaders use as they
interact with followers.
o Consistent patterns of behaviour characterize
a leader.
 University of Iowa Leadership Styles

• Autocratic leadership style

> The autocrat makes the decisions, tells
employees what to do and closely supervises
workers.

• Democratic leadership style

> The democrat encourages participation in
decisions, allows the group to determine tasks
and does not closely supervise employees.
 Exhibit 3.1

• A leader’s style usually falls somewhere between

autocrat and democrat .
 University of Michigan Leadership Model
• Leadership research was conducted at Ohio State and
the University of Michigan at about the same time
during the mid-1940s to mid-1950s.
• These studies sought to determine the behaviour of
effective leaders.
• This model stated that a leader is either more job-
centered or more employee-centered.
• Identified 2 leadership styles:
> job-centered leadership style and
> Employee-centered Leadership Style.
 University of Michigan Leadership Model (Cont’d)
• Job-centered behaviour refers to the extent to which the
leader takes charge to get the job done.
> Job-(task-)Centered Leadership Style has scales measuring goal
emphasis and work facilitation.
> Leaders closely directs subordinates with clear roles and goals,
whereas the manager tells them what to do and how to do.

• Employee-centered behaviour refers to the extent to which

the leader focuses on meeting the human needs of employees
while developing relationships.
> Employee-(People-)Centered Leadership Style has scales
measuring supportive leadership and interaction facilitation.
> The leader is sensitive to subordinates and communicates to
develop trust, support, and respect while looking out for their
welfare.
 Exhibit 3.2
The University or Michigan Leadership Model:
Two Leadership Styles, One Dimension
 Ohio State University Leadership Model

• In the attempt to measure leadership styles, researchers at

Ohio State University developed an instrument known as the
Leader Behaviour Description Questionnaire (LBDQ).

• Respondents to the questionnaire perceived their leader’s

behaviour toward them on 2 distinct dimensions:
o Initiating structure behaviour
same as the job centered leadership style; it focuses
on getting the task done.
o Consideration behaviour
same as the employee-centered leadership style; it
focuses on meeting people’s needs and developing
relationships.
 Ohio State University Leadership Model (Cont’d)

• Because a leader can be high or low on initiating

structure and/or consideration, 4 leadership styles are
developed: 
> low structure and high consideration,
> high structure and high consideration,
> low structure and low consideration, and
> high structure and low consideration.
• Leaders with high structure and low consideration
behaviour use one-way communications and decisions
are made by the managers.
• Whereas leaders with high consideration and low
structure use two-way communication and tend to share
decision making.
 Differences, Contributions and Applications of
Leadership Models
• Differences between the Models:
> The Ohio State and University of Michigan leadership
models are different in that the University of Michigan
places the two leadership behaviors at opposite ends of
the same continuum, making it one-dimensional.
> The Ohio State University model considers the two
behaviors independent of one another, making it two-
dimensional; thus this model has 4 leadership styles.
 Differences, Contributions and Applications of
Leadership Models (Cont’d)
• Contributions of the Models:
> There is no one best leadership style in all situations is the
first contribution, because it has helped lead researchers to
the next paradigm—that of contingency leadership theory.
> So there was a shift to place more emphasis on the human
side of the organization to increase productivity.
> Most leadership functions can be carried out by someone
besides the designated leader of a group. Thus,
organizations began training managers to use participative
leadership styles.
 Differences, Contributions and Applications of
Leadership Models (Cont’d)
• Applications of the Models:
> Through our ongoing self-assessment, we can
determine how we are coming across to others and
how we could change our behaviour to be more
effective in performing our task and in developing our
relations.
 Leadership Grid Theory

• Builds on the Ohio State and Michigan studies; it is

based on the same 2 leadership dimensions, which are
called:
> concern for production and
> concern for people.

• The Leadership Grid identifies 5 leadership styles:

> 1,1 impoverished;
> 9,1 authority compliance;
> 1,9 country club;
> 5,5 middle of the road; and
> 9,9 team leader.
 Exhibit 3.4
Blake, Mouton, and McCanse Leadership Grid

Country-club Team leader

Middle-of-the-road

Impoverished Authority-compliance

3–17
 Leadership Grid Theory (Cont’d)

Leadership Grid and High-High Leader

Research
• The high-high leader has concern for both
production and people.
• Although there is some support for the high-high
leader style as the universal theory, the style is
not accepted as the one best style in all
situations.
Behavioural Theory Contributions and Applications

• Different leadership styles are more effective in different

situations. Thus, it led to the shift in paradigm to
contingency leadership theory.
• The recognition that organisations need both production
and people leadership.
• Behavioural leadership theory supports coleadership.
> One leader is production-oriented, and
> One leader is people-oriented.
 Leadership and Major Motivation Theories
Motivation and Leadership
• Motivation is anything that affects behaviour in
pursuing a certain outcome.
• We tend to seek job satisfaction as we satisfy our self-
interest.
• There is no single, universally accepted theory of how to
motivate people, or how to classify the theories.

The Motivation Process

• Through the motivation process, people go from need to
motive to behaviour to consequence to satisfaction or
dissatisfaction.
Exhibit 3.5 The Motivation Process
(Cont’d)
 Content Motivation Theories

1. Hierarchy of Needs Theory

2. Two-Factor Theory
3. Acquired Needs Theory
4. Balancing Work-Life Needs
 1. Hierarchy of Needs Theory
• Abraham Maslow developed his hierarchy of needs
theory, which is based on 4 major assumptions:
> Only unmet needs motivate.
> People’s needs are arranged in order of importance
(hierarchy) going from basic to complex needs.
> People will not be motivated to satisfy a higher-level need
unless the lower-level need(s) has been at least minimally
satisfied.
> People have 5 classifications of needs, which are
presented here in hierarchical order from low to high level
of need.
 1. Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Cont’d)

• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory proposes that people are

motivated through 5 levels of needs.
1. Physiological needs – primary or basic needs: air, food,
shelter etc.
2. Safety needs – safety and security.
3. Belongingness (Social) needs – love, friendship, acceptance,
and affection
4. Esteem needs – focuses on ego, status, self-respect.
5. Self-actualization needs – to develop one’s full potential.

• It did not take into consideration that people can be at different

levels of needs based on different aspects of their lives. Nor did
he mention that people can revert back to lower-level needs.
The ways managers
attempt to meet all
5 needs.
 2. Two-Factor Theory
• In the 1960s, Frederick Herzberg published his two-factor theory.
Herzberg combined lower-level needs into one classification he
called hygiene or maintenance; and higher-level needs into one
classification he called motivators.
• The two-factor theory proposes that people are motivated by
motivators rather than maintenance (hygiene) factors.
> Hygiene or Maintenance factors are extrinsic motivators and
include: pay, job security, working conditions and relationships.
> Motivators are intrinsic motivators and include: work itself,
achievement, recognition, challenge, growth and advancement.
o Intrinsic motivators are better motivators.
o Job enrichment builds motivators into the job itself.
 2. Two-Factor Theory (Cont’d)
• There are two continuums:
> not dissatisfied with the environment
(maintenance) to dissatisfied, and
> satisfied with the job itself (motivators) to not
satisfied (a two-dimensional model).
• Employees are on a continuum from dissatisfied
to not dissatisfied with their environment.
• Providing maintenance factors will keep
employees from being dissatisfied, but it will not
make them satisfied or motivate them.
 2. Two-Factor Theory (Cont’d)
Motivating Employees with Two-Factor Theory
• Managers must first ensure that the employees’
level of pay and other maintenance factors are
adequate.
• Once employees are not dissatisfied with their pay
(and other maintenance factors), they can be
motivated through their jobs.
• Herzberg also developed job enrichment, the
process of building motivators into the job itself by
making it more interesting and challenging.
 3. Acquired Needs Theory
• Acquired needs theory proposes that people are
motivated by their need for achievement, power, and
affiliation.
> Motivating employees with a high n Ach:
o Give them challenging tasks with clear objectives.

> Motivating employees with a high n Pow:

o Let them plan and control their jobs as much as
possible.
> Motivating employees with a high n Aff:
o Let them work as part of a team.
Exhibit 3.9
 Balancing Work-Life Needs
• Work-life balance is also called work-home and work-family
balance. We need a healthy balance between our life and our
work.
• The global marketplace allows for around the clock work
causing work-life conflict.
• Negative consequences of work-life conflict: stress, burnout,
absenteeism, turnover and dissatisfaction with job, family and
life.
• Two things organisations are doing to help employees meet
their personal needs are:
> Providing on-site day care centers, and
> Offering flextime.
Process Motivation Theories

1. Equity theory
2. Expectancy theory
3. Goal-setting theory
 1. Equity Theory
• Equity theory proposes that people are motivated when
their perceived inputs equal outputs.
• When inequity is perceived, employees attempt to correct
the balance.
• When employees believe they are equitably rewarded, they
are not actively motivated.When employees feel under-
rewarded, they are demotivated.
• Equity theory offers some of the following useful general
recommendations:
> Managers should be aware that equity is based on
perception.
> Rewards should be equitable.
> High performance should be rewarded so performance
does not decrease.
 2. Expectancy Theory
• Expectancy theory proposes that people are
motivated when they believe they can accomplish the
task, they will get the reward, and the rewards for doing
the task are worth the effort.
• These conditions result in motivation:
> Clearly defined objectives and the performance needed
to achieve them,
> Tie performance to rewards,
> Be sure rewards are of value to employees,
> Make sure employees believe you will do what you say
you will do, and
> Use the Pygmalion effect to increase expectations.
 3. Goal-Setting Theory
• Goal-setting theory proposes that specific, difficult
goals motivate people.
• Goal setting might be the most effective
management tool available.

Model 3.1
 Criteria for Objectives
Effective objectives meet these 4 criteria:
1. Singular result – Each objective should have only one end
result.
2. Specific – The objective should state exact expectations.
3. Measurable – Must be observable and measurable.
4. Target date – A specific date set for accomplishing the
objective.
3 other criteria that do not always fit within the model:
> Difficult but achievable – should be challenging.
> Participatively set – people who help set their objectives
outperform those who don’t – gains commitment.
> Commitment – for objectives to be met, employees must
accept them – participating helps.
 Reinforcement Theory
• Reinforcement theory proposes that through
the consequences for behaviour, people will be
motivated to behave in predetermined ways.

• Managers needed to understand the relationship

between behaviours and their consequences,
and then arrange contingencies that reinforce
desirable behaviours and discourage undesirable
behaviours.
Exhibit 3.10
 Types of Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement
• A method of encouraging continued behaviour is to offer attractive
consequences (rewards) for desirable performance.

Avoidance Reinforcement
• Avoidance is also called negative reinforcement. As with positive
reinforcement, you are encouraging continued desirable behaviour. The
employee avoids the negative consequence.

Punishment
• Punishment is used to provide an undesirable consequence for
undesirable behaviour.

Extinction
• Rather than encourage desirable behaviour, extinction (and
punishment) attempts to reduce or eliminate undesirable behavior by
withholding reinforcement (ignoring the behaviour) when the behaviour
occurs.
 Putting Motivation Theories Together
• Motivation helps explain why employees behave the way
they do.
• The groups of theories are complementary.
• Each group of theories refers to a different stage in the
motivation process.
• Each group of theories answers a different question:
> Content Motivation Theories ask “What needs do
employees have that should be met on the job?”
> Process Motivation Theories ask “How do employees
choose behaviour to fulfill their needs?”
> Reinforcement Theory asks “What can managers do to
get employees to behave in ways that meet the
organizational objectives?”
Thank you