LEARNING THEORIES

 What is Learning Theories?

• Learning theories fill the pages of books related to education and

classroom practice, each one offering a different account of how
people learn and what constitutes as learning.
• Sets of conjectures and hypotheses that explain the process of
learning or how learning takes place.
• According to Akdeniz et al. (2016), the three basic approaches
while dealing with learning theories are behaviorist (behaviorism),
cognitivist (cognitivism), and constructivist (constructivism).
• One of the most famous learning theory is Jean Piaget’s cognitive
development theory. This theory explains that children take an
active role in the learning process.
 What is Learning Theories?

• Theories vary in their quality and rigor. It is vital that

you be well-informed of the classical and current
theories that are emerging in the context of education.
• As pointed out by Wilson and Peterson (2006), the
Scottish physicist James C. Maxwell is credited for his
saying “There is nothing as practical as a good theory.”
You should, therefore, be critical in applying the learning
theories you think is or are most applicable in any given
situation.
  I.BEHAVIORISM/ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING
THEORY APPROACH

• Depicts observable and measurable aspects of human behavior. All behavior

are directed by stimuli.
• Behaviorism believes that behaviors can be measured, trained, and changed.
• Behaviorism suggests that learners must be actively engaged and rewarded
immediately for their involvement in the activity in order to achieve learning.
• John B. Watson, known as the Father of Behaviorism, and Burrhus Frederic
Skinner are the two principal originators of behaviorist approaches to
learning.
• According to Pavlov, behavior is acquired through conditioning. Conditioning
is an established manner that occurs through interaction with the
environment. There are two major types of conditioning: classical and
operant conditioning.
 BELIEFS OF BEHAVIORIST APPROACH

 It operates on the principle of “stimulus-

response.”
 Behavior is observable and measurable.
 It prefers actual behavior as an indicator of
learning.
 IVAN PETROVICH PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

 This type of
conditioning asserts
that an individual
learns when a
previously neutral
stimulus is repeatedly
paired with an
unconditioned stimulus
until a neutral stimulus
evokes a
conditioned/desired
response.
 FEATURES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS Automatically produces an emotional or

physiological response.

Unconditioned response (UCR) • Natural occurring emotional response.

Neutral stimuli (NS) • Stimuli that do not elicit a response.
Conditioned stimulus (CS) • Evokes an emotional or physiological
response after being conditioned.

Conditioned response (CR) • Learned response from a previously

neutral condition.
 PHASES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
 BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER’S OPERANT
CONDITIONING AND REINFORCEMENT
 This type of conditioning
stresses the use of pleasant
and unpleasant
consequences to control
the occurrence of
behavior.
 Learners tend to repeat
the behavior that led to
favorable outcomes and
suppress those that
produced unfavorable
results.
 In operant conditioning, we
often hear and use the
words reinforce and
reinforcement.
 TYPES OF REINFORCER

1. Primary reinforcer- a stimulus 2. Secondary reinforcer- a

that is related to both biological stimulus that reinforces a
and physiological needs such as behavior after being previously
food, clothing, shelter, warmth, associated with a primary
human touch, etc. reinforcer. It includes money,
Example: A child is excited to go grades in school, tokens, etc.
to school on the first day of class Example: A child learns to value
because of his or her new pair of money because he or she needs
shoes, uniform, bag, opportunity it to buy food, clothing, or any
to meet new friends and other basic needs.
teachers, etc. but unmindful of
his or her new lessons.
3. Positive reinforcer- a 4. Negative reinforcer- a
stimulus is added to a situation stimulus is withdrawn to a
or event to strengthen a situation or event to strengthen
behavior. a behavior.
Example: Increasing the hours of Example: Taking away a
watching movies because the learner’s favorite toy when the
learner achieved a perfect score learner misbehaves.
in examination.
 SCHEDULES FOR REINFORCEMENT

1. Fixed Ratio (FR)- this reinforcement is dispensed following a constant number of

desired behaviors.
Example: The learner is given praise or reward for every correct answer or desirable
behavior displayed.
2. Fixed Interval (FI)- this reinforcement is dispensed following a constant amount of
desired time.
Example: The talkative learner will be given praise or reward only if he or she will
remain quiet for 10 minutes. Following the token, no additional reinforcement will be
given until another 10 minutes passed.
3. Variable Ratio (VR)- this reinforcement is dispensed following a varying amount of
trials.
Example: In joining a math competition, a learner will not know when he or she will
win even after several trials of competing.
4. Variable Interval (VI)- this reinforcement is dispensed following a varying amount of
time.
 TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT

1. Verbal- learners excel more when they are given praise for performing well in the
examination. On the other hand, learners who did not perform well in the
examination are encouraged to study harder and do better next time.
2. Physical- learners feel proud when given a pat on a shoulder or hug for doing
great in their “Sabayang Bigkasan.’’ However. Physical reinforcement must be used
with caution because of the issue of sexual harassment. Still, human touch has been
found to be an effective tool to increase the confidence of learners.
3.Nonverbal- learners feel relaxed and comfortable when they are given smiles or
warm looks during a discussion.
4.Activity- learners enjoy the class discussions more if varied games or any related
class activities are incorporated in them.
5. Token- learners appreciate their efforts when given a corresponding points or
tokens.
6. Consumable- learners find it satisfying when given consumable rewards like
Principle of Reinforcement- negative • Obtaining a score of 80% or higher
reinforcement increases the probability of makes the final exam optional.
a response that removes or prevents an • Submitting all assignments on time
adverse condition. results in the lowest grade being
dropped.
• Perfect attendance is rewarded with a
“homework pass.’’

Principle of Extinction- punishment • Learners involved in fighting are

involves presenting a strong stimulus that immediately referred to the principal.
decreases the frequency of a particular • Late assignments are given “0.’’
response. Punishment is effective in • Three records of tardiness in attending
quickly eliminating undesirable behaviors. class results to dialogue with parents.

Premark Principle or “Grandma Rule.”- • Learners can go home only after

less derived activities can be increased by accomplishing the given task or tasks
looking at them to do more desired for the day.
activities. • Stress to the learners that there is time
for play, study, and sleep.
 EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE’S CONNECTIONISM

 It means selecting and

connecting constitute
learning.
 Instrumental conditioning,
which explains that there is
a probability for a behavior
to occur again when
followed by a positive
experience.
 focused on the connection
between the stimulus and
the response.
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING IN IMPLICATION
CONNECTIONISM

Multiple Responses- this refers to a A child tries multiple responses to solve a

variety of responses that would lead to a certain problem.
conclusion or arrival of an answer.

Law of Set and Attitude- this explains Giving homework and advanced reading
that prior instruction/experience affects prepares the child well in class.
a given task.
Law of Readiness- this law explains that Asking a child to write the letters of the
interfering with oral directed behavior alphabet when he or she does not yet
causes frustration. It further explains know the basic strokes or writing will
that making someone to do something only lead to frustration and
that he or she does not want to do is also disappointment.
frustrating.
Law of Exercise- this law explains Teachers should provide learners with
learning by doing. Below are the two varied enhancement activities, exercise,
tenets of the law of exercise: or seatwork for practice.
• Law of use
• Law of Disuse

Law of effect- this law explains that Teachers should recognize the
reward reinforces a behavior, whereas achievement of learners and encourage
punishment decreases its occurrence. others to perform better.

Halo Effect- this law describes the Good looking and beautiful learners are
“physical attractiveness stereotype” and outright perceived to be smart and
the “what is beautiful is good’’ principle. intelligent. Thus, teachers should evaluate
learners according to their performance
and not on their physical appearance.
 II. COGNITIVISM APPROACH

• Cognitivism can be defined as the study in psychology that focuses

on mental processes, including how people think, perceive and
learn, to solve problems and direct their attention to one stimulus
rather than another.
• Behavioral psychology is based on factual and procedural rules.
rewards, and punishment.
• It gives way to cognitive psychology, which is based on models for
making sense of real-life experiences and how we receive and
interpret information.
 BELIEFS OF COGNITIVIST APPROACH

• It focuses on memory as the storage and retrieval of

information.
• It prefers to concentrate on analyzing cognitive
processes.
• It considers schema as essential in learning.
 EDWARD CHANCE TOLMAN’S LATENT-PLACE
LEARNING

 First introduced by Hugh

Blodgett, who made use of the
paradigm of learning without
reinforcement.
 Learning occurs in situation
where there is no certain
reward because of the
presence of “cognitive maps.”
 Tolman emphasized that
organisms organize behavior
around a purpose, which he
calls the theory of “purposive
behaviorism.”
 TWO DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING PROCESSES

Reception Learning Discovery Learning

In reception learning, learners In discovery learning, learners focus

receive the information from the on identifying the key ideas and work
teacher; therefore, the teacher out to store this information on their
should present ideas or concepts to own. Therefore, the teacher should
the learners in a well-organized expose learners to varied activities.
manner.
 DAVID AUSUBEL’S MEANINGFUL VERBAL
LEARNING THEORY

• Focuses on the verbal learning method.

• learners learn new information –whole to pieces-
through direct exposure to information rather than
discover.
• Meaningful learning occurs when they experience are
related to what learners already know.
 JEROME BRUNER’S DISCOVERY LEARNING
THEORY/INQUIRY METHOD/THEORY OF INSTRUCTION

 Emphasizes that learning is

more meaningful to learners
when they have the
opportunity to interact
among themselves and with
their environment.
 Conducting experiments,
exploring and manipulating
materials and equipment,
wrestling with questions,
and finding solutions to their
questions.
  WOLFGANG KOHLER’S INISGHT
LEARNING/PROBLEM-SOLVING THEORY

 Rooted in Gestalt theory,

where an individual evaluates
information as a whole rather
than receiving it in isolation
(“The whole is greater than
the sum of the parts”).
 Learners have the capacity to
determine and understand
the nature of any given
phenomenon in a bigger view.
 Problem is solved through the
cognitive trial and error”
method.
 GEORGE A. MILLER’S THEORY OF DATA
PROCESSING

 Learning is a complex and

internal process that occurs
with some mental processes.
 Emphasizes that learning is
the basic means of learning
and explains learning in
terms of the memory system.
 Focuses on how information
goes into the memory and
how it is stored and retrieved
as the need arises.
 3 MAIN ELEMENTS OF INFORMATION
PROCESSING

1. Information stores- it refers to the places where information is stored, it is

composes of the following three different types of memory:
1.1 Sensory record- first-hand information is received using the different
senses.
1.2 Short-term memory (processor)- information is processed and turned into
behavior before mit is transferred to long-term memory.
1.3 Long-term memory- information is continually stored and has three
different parts where different types of information are kept as:
1.3.1 Semantic memory- storage of verbal information.
1.3.2 Recollectional memory- storage of records and events, phenomena, time
and places.
1.3.3 Operational memory- storage of skills and ordinal, applied, and
methodological information.
2. Cognitive processes- refers to mental activities that help in transferring
information from one memory to another such as:
2.1 Attention- it is the power to focus on selective information.
2.2 Perception- describing the information received.
2.3 Repetition- storing repetitive information for it to stay longer in the short-term
memory.
2.4 Coding- deducing or using codes when transferring information from short-term
memory to long-term memory.
2.5 Storing- anchored on Anderson and Bower’s model that established on verbal
units including structures of subject and verb rather than perception.
2.6 Retrieving- process of looking for, finding, ad activing information when needed.
3. Executive cognition or cognition information- it refers to the harmonization
between information stores and cognitive processes for data processing.
 RICHARD ATKINSON’S AND RICHARD SHIFFRIN’S
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

 Information processing
model
 This theory describes how
information is processed into
memory so that learning
learners get the best out of
the stored information.
 Memory is the central
point for learning.
 Encoding, storage, and
retrieval.
 STAGES OF HUMAN MEMORY

1. Sensory Memory (SM)- this stage utilizes all the different senses
such as olfactory, auditory, sight, smell, touch in capturing
information.
2. Short-term Memory (STM)- this stage selects information
through processes of attention and perception transferred by the
sensory memory.
3. Long-term Memory (LTM)- permanent storage of information
related to the different areas of life and is activated when
information is needed.
 THREE COMPONENTS OF LTM ACCORING TO
TULVING (1993)

1. Episodic- it is the recall of the particular time and place,

events, and dates of one’s personal experiences.
2. Procedural- it is the recall of specific skills or steps in
completing a task or refers to “knowing how.”
3. Semantic- it is the recall of generation facts, principles, and
concepts needed to answer standard questions.
Causes of Forgetting:
4. Retrieval Failure- due to the inability to recall information.
5. Decay Theory- due to the failure of using information.
6. Interference Theory- due to the influence of other learning.
 GUIDELINES EXAMPLE
Gain the attention of learners. Move around the room or use voice variations.

Ask learners to recall prior relevant learning. Conduct a review of the past lesson.

Point out missed important information. Emphasize to the learners that vital
information can be found on the bulletin board,
handouts, study guides, etc.
Organize essential information. Present information from simple to complex.

Categorized related information. Present information in a logical sequence.

Teach learners to look for similarities and
differences.
Relate new information to existing ones. Connect new information to what is already
know.
Teach how to encode information for easy Provide different graphic organizers like
remembering. mnemonics, Venn diagram, spider map, etc.
Repeat the learning process. Show different ways of presenting and
manipulating information
Attention to overload mental tasks. Engage learners in non-mental activities.
 ALLAN PAIVOI’S DUAL-CODING THEORY

 Affirms that when two

or more modalities are
used in teaching-
learning, it is likely that
learners learn better
and faster
 Upholds the principle of
individual differences
and learning styles.
 Addresses children with
special needs.
 ROBERT GAGNE’S CUMULATIVE LEARNING

 Learning skills are

arranged
hierarchically from
stimulus-response
associations to
concepts, principles,
and problem-solving.
 HEIRARCHY OF LEARNING

1. Signal Learning- responses that are learned involuntarily.

2. Stimulus-response Learning- responses that are learned voluntarily.
3. Chaining/Motor-Verbal response- combining or chaining two or more
separate motor or verbal responses to develop a more complex response.
4. Verbal Association- use of verbal connections to create associations.
5. Discrimination Learning- a selective response, which applies to given
stimuli.
6. Concept Learning- classifying and organizing perceptions to gain
meaningful concepts.
7. Principle Learning (Rule Learning)- combining and relating concepts to
form rules
8. Problem-solving- applying rules to appropriate problem situations.
 NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION

1. Gaining attention (reception)- getting the learners’ attention before the start of the
lesson.
2. Informing learners of the objective/s (expectancy)- telling the learners what to expect
in the lesson.
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)- reviewing the previous lesson.
4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)- connecting the past lesson to the
present lesson.
5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)- presenting new concepts through
guided activities.
6. Eliciting performance (responding)- knowing whether the learners understood the
lesson through participation.
7. Providing feedback (reinforcement)- verbal feedbacking, praising and encouraging.
8. Assessing performance (retrieval)- evaluating the performance of the learners.
9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)- transferring learning to another
situation.
 TYPES OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING

Specific- learning is transferred to similar General- learning is transferred to

situations dissimilar situations.

Examples: When the learner is able to Example: When the learner is able to
balance himself or herself on a 4-inch balance or herself on a low beam, he or
beam, he or she is able to balance himself she is able to balance himself or herself on
or herself on an elevated 4-inch beam. a bicycle.

Lateral- the learner is able to perform a Vertical- the learner able to learn more
new task at about the same level. advance or complex skills.

Example: Learners can solve word Example: Learners are able to add and
problems given in text and later solve a multiply or read and write.
similar problem on the board.
 III. CONSTRUCTIVISM APPROACH

 Anchored on Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism and Lev

Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism.
 Advocates that learners build knowledge out of their experiences
and ideas.
 This knowledge is then shared and enhanced through interaction
with significant others.
 Jean Piaget observed that learners create new knowledge from
their prior experiences. However, Vygotsky, insist that in order
for learners to gain a greater amount of learning, they should be
in constant encounter with significant others.
 Learners take responsibility for their own learning, while teachers
facilitate learning within a social context (Sotto 2007).
 BELIEFS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

 Society and culture affect learning.

 Learning involves community engagement.
 Social interactions is equally important
because of the characteristics of learners as
social learners.
 JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM

 This theory stresses

that learners take
active role in
understanding,
creating, and making
sense of information in
terms of
developmental stages,
developmental tasks,
and learning styles.
 JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM

 The following are the major considerations when applying this theory:
1. There are things that learners can and cannot understand at different ages.
2. Learners develop cognitive abilities through developmental stages.
3. Learners fit in new experiences into their existing schema (assimilation).
4. Learners alter existing schema to integrate their new experiences
(accommodation).
Elements that influence learner’s cognitive development according to Elliot
(2007) such as:
5. Maturation occurs naturally as learners grow older.
6. As learners grow, develop, and mature, there is greater interaction with
their environment.
7. Social transmission
 LEV SEMANOVICH VYGOTSKY’S SOCIAL
CONSTRUCTIVISM

 Emphasizes that
learning is built
through social
encounters with peers
and adults.
 The heart of learning
involves active social
interaction which is
vital in the learning
process.
 Major considerations when applying
sociocultural theory:

1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)- the gap between actual

and potential development. It is what learners do with help.
2. Scaffolds (SF)- a component assistance extended to the learners
as they begin the journey of learning. These scaffolds could be
circumvented once learners have learned already.
3. Social Interaction (SI)- frequent interaction of learners with
other people that influence learning.
4. More knowledge Other (KMO)- significant others that learners
look when in doubt.
  ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING
THEORY

 Simply known as the “Voovoo

or Bobo doll” experiment.
 Learners learn through
simulation and modeling,
which means watching
(observing) someone called a
social model and imitating the
model’s behavior at a later
time.
 Serves as a bridge between
behaviorist and cognitive
learning theories.
 Bandura renamed it as social
cognitive theory.
 According to Bandura, models are
classified as:

1. Real-life or Direct Modeling- type of modeling where

learners imitate the model’s behavior.
2. Symbolic Modeling- type of modeling where learners
imitate the behaviors displayed by characters in books,
plays, movies, or television.
3. Synthesized Modeling- type of modeling where learners
develop behaviors by combining portions of observed acts.
4. Abstract Modeling- type of modeling where learners infer a
system of rules by observing examples where rules are
displayed.
 CONCEPTS IN SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY ACCORDING
TO BANDURA

1. Vicarious Learning- learning is acquired from

observing the consequences of others’ behavior.
2. Self-regulated Learning- learning occurs when
learners observe, assess, and judge their own
behavior against their own standards.
Subsequently, they reward themselves when
successful or punish themselves when they fail.
 FOUR PHASES OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
ACCORDING TO BANDURA

1. Attention- requires learners to initially pay attention to be able

to observe fully the distinctive features of the model’s behavior.
2. Retention- allows learners to retain or recall the observed
behavior.
3. Motor Reproduction Process- entails physical skills and
coordination because they are needed for imitation of the
learned behavior.
4. Motivational- causes learners to explicitly perform the modeled
behavior to receive favorable conditions.
 JEAN LAVE AND WENGER’S SITUATED LEARNING

 Learners learn in particular

situations and contexts in
which the nature of the
situation significantly
impacts the process of
learning.
 More so when learning
involves social relationships
and co-participation exist
between and among
learners.
 CoP is an organic self-
organized group of
individuals from various
geographical locations.
 HOWARD GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

 Persons have the capacity to

possess all intelligences
because of the influence of
both heredity and
environment.
 Howard Gardner’s Multiple
Intelligence became a
phenomenon in the education
industry as a conventional
model.
 Gardner added Naturalist
Intelligence, Spiritual or
Existential Intelligence and
Moral Intelligence among the
original seven intelligences.
Intelligence Competence Capability and Examples
Perception
1. Linguistic- learners Ability to learn words and language writers, poets,
have an intense different languages lawyers, speakers
passion for spoken and use them to
and written language. accomplish goals
2. Logical- Ability to discover logic and numbers scientists,
Mathematical- patterns, reason mathematics
learners can analyze deductively, and
problems logically think logically
and scientifically
through mathematical
operations.

3. Musical- learners Ability to recognize music., sound, rhythm musicians, composers

are adaptive to skills and compose musical
in performance, pitches, tones,
composition, and rhythms
appreciation of
musical patterns.
4. Bodily- Ability to coordinate body movement athletes, dancers
Kinesthetic- leaners mental abilities with control
make use of their bodily movements
own body or whole
body in solving and
conveying thoughts
or ideas.
5. Spatial-Visual- Ability to fathom and images and space engineers, surveyors
learners can optimize the use of
distinguish and utilize spaces
patterns of space and
confined areas.
6. Interpersonal- Ability to understand other people’s educators,
learners work the intentions, feelings salespeople, religious
effectively with motivations, and counselors,
others. desires of other politicians
people
7. Interpersonal- Ability to understand self-awareness self-directed
learners work oneself, appreciate individuals
effectively with one’s feelings, fears,
oneself. and motivations
8. Naturalist- Ability to recognize, Natural environment Nature lover,
learners have an categorize, and environmentalist
appreciation of the grow upon certain
environment and features of the
nature. environment

9. Spiritual or Ability to use religion and ‘ultimate human rights

Existential- learners collective values and issues’ advocates,
are concerned with intuition to legislators,
various social issues. understand others theologians
and the world around
them

10. Moral- learners Ability to apply rules ethics, humanity, traffic enforcers,
observe rules, and regulations in value of life enforcers, police
behaviors, and daily life situations officers, peace and
attitudes that govern order advocates
the sanctity of life.
 ROBERT STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC INTELLIGENCE

 Believes that learners

learn even outside the
classroom.
 Environment is the
best classroom for
them.
 Learners are
encouraged to explore
the outside world to
give meaning to their
learnings.
 KINDS OF INTELLIGENCE

1. Practical intelligence- ability to do well in formal and in

informal educational settings; this is also known as “street
smart” individuals.
2. Experiential intelligence- ability to deal with current
situations so that novel situations that may arise in the
future are easily handled.
3. Componential intelligence- ability to process
metacognition and knowledge-acquisition component
effectively.
 WILHELM WUNDT’S STRUCTURALISM

 Assumes the discovery

structure of the mind is
built upon the basic
elements of ideas and
sensations and could
only be completed
through introspection
 Introspection is the self-
examination of one’s
thoughts, memories,
perceptions, and
motivations.
 WILLIAM JAMES’ FUNCTIONSLISM

 Examines how the

mind functions and the
mental processing that
leads to adaptive
behavior.
 Functionalists were
concerned with both
mental processes and
adaptive behavior.
 KURT LEWIN’S “life space” and “field
theory.”

 “Life space” refers to

reality, while “Field
theory” refers to the
functions of both
person and
environment.
 Learning occurs when
the learners’ existing
environment in
harmony with their
present reality.
 DANIEL GOLEMAN’S EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

 Highlights the role

of emotion in the
development of an
individual’s
personality, which
eventually affects
the progress of
learning and
behavior.
 DAVID KOLB’S EXPERIENTAL LEARNING

 Focuses on
constructing
knowledge as a
result of one’s
reflective
experience, which
serves as the main
driving force in
learning.
 IV. CONNECTIVISM APPROACH

 Self-directed learning where learner learns on their own with the

use of computer and aided instruction (CAI).