ComputerNetwork C5-1 en

COMPUTER NETWORKS
THE NETWORK LAYER

Data Plane
1-1
Chapter 4: outline
5.4 routing protocols
5.1 Overview of Network layer
– link state
– data plane
– distance vector
– control plane
5.5
5.2 intra-AS routing
What’s inside in the Internet: OSPF
a router
5.6
5.3 routing among
IP: Internet the ISPs: BGP
Protocol
5.7 The SDN control
– datagram formatplane
5.8 ICMP: The Internet Control Message Protocol
– fragmentation
5.9 Network management and SNMP
– IPv4 addressing
– network address
translation
– IPv6 Data Plane Control Plane
Network Layer: Data Plane 4-2
Network layer
application
• transport segments from sending transport

network
data link
to receiving host physical
network network
• on sending side: encapsulates network

data link
data link
physical
data link
physical
segments into datagrams physical network

data link
network
data link
physical physical
• on receiving side, delivers
segments to transport layer network
data link
network
data link
physical physical
• network layer protocols in every network
data link
physical
host, router network
application
transport
• router examines header fields in network

data link
physical
network
data link
network
data link
data link physical physical
all IP datagrams passing through physical
it

Two key network-layer functions
network-layer functions: analogy: taking a trip

•forwarding: move packets from  forwarding: process of
router’s input to appropriate getting through single
router output interchange
•routing: determine route taken by
packets from source to destination  routing: process of
– routing algorithms planning trip from source to
destination

Network layer: data plane, control plane
Data plane Control plane

 local, per-router function  network-wide logic
 determines how datagram  determines how datagram is routed
among routers along end-end path
arriving on router input port from source host to destination
is forwarded to router output host
port  two control-plane approaches:
 forwarding function • traditional routing algorithms:
values in arriving
packet header
implemented in routers
• software-defined networking
0111 1
(SDN): implemented in (remote)
3
2
servers

Per-router control plane
Individual routing algorithm components in each and every
router interact in the control plane
Routing
Algorithm
control
plane
data
plane
values in arriving
packet header
0111 1
2
3
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-6

Logically centralized control plane
A distinct (typically remote) controller interacts with local control
agents (CAs)
Remote Controller
control
plane
data
plane
CA
CA CA CA CA
values in arriving
packet header
0111 1
2
3
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-7

Network service model
Q: What service model for “channel” transporting
datagrams from sender to receiver?
example services for example services for a flow

individual datagrams: of datagrams:
 guaranteed delivery • in-order datagram delivery
 guaranteed delivery with • guaranteed minimum
less than 40 msec delay bandwidth to flow
• restrictions on changes in
inter-packet spacing

Network layer service models:
Guarantees ?
Network Service Congestion
Architecture Model Bandwidth Loss Order Timing feedback
Internet best effort none no no no no (inferred

via loss)
ATM CBR constant yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM VBR guaranteed yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM ABR guaranteed no yes no yes
minimum
ATM UBR none no yes no no

Chapter 4: outline
– link stateplane
– data
– distance
– control vector
plane
5.5
a router
5.6
5.3 routing among
Protocol
– datagram
5.7 The SDN control
formatplane
– fragmentation
– IPv4 addressing
– network address translation
– IPv6
– NAT Data Plane Control Plane
Router architecture overview
• high-level view of generic router architecture:
routing, management
routing control plane (software)
processor operates in millisecond
time frame
forwarding data plane
(hardware) operttes in
nanosecond timeframe
high-seed
switching
fabric
router input ports router output ports

Input port functions
lookup,
link forwarding
line layer switch
termination protocol fabric
(receive)
queueing
physical layer:
bit-level reception
data link layer: decentralized switching:
e.g., Ethernet • using header field values, lookup output port
see chapter 5 using forwarding table in input port memory
(“match plus action”)
• goal: complete input port processing at ‘line
speed’
• queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than
forwarding rate into switch fabric
Input port functions
lookup,
link forwarding
line layer switch
termination protocol fabric
(receive)
queueing
physical layer:
bit-level reception
decentralized switching:
data link layer: • using header field values, lookup output port
e.g., Ethernet using forwarding table in input port memory
see chapter 5 (“match plus action”)
• destination-based forwarding: forward based
only on destination IP address (traditional)
• generalized forwarding: forward based on any
set of header field values

Destination-based forwarding
forwarding table
Destination Address Range Link Interface
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

through 0
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111
11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

through 1
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111
11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

through 2
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111
otherwise 3
Q: but what happens if ranges don’t divide up so nicely?

Longest prefix matching
longest prefix matching
when looking for forwarding table entry for given
destination address, use longest address prefix that
matches destination address.
Destination Address Range Link interface

11001000 00010111 00010*** ********* 0
11001000 00010111 00011000 ********* 1
11001000 00010111 00011*** ********* 2
otherwise 3
examples:
DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001 which interface?
DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010 which interface?
Longest prefix matching
• we’ll see why longest prefix matching is used shortly, when we
study addressing
• longest prefix matching: often performed using ternary content
addressable memories (TCAMs)
– content addressable: present address to TCAM: retrieve address in one
clock cycle, regardless of table size
– Cisco Catalyst: can up ~1M routing table entries in TCAM

Switching fabrics
 transfer packet from input buffer to appropriate output buffer
 switching rate: rate at which packets can be transfer from
inputs to outputs
• often measured as multiple of input/output line rate
• N inputs: switching rate N times line rate desirable
 three types of switching fabrics
memory
memory bus crossbar

Switching via memory
first generation routers:
• traditional computers with switching under direct control of CPU
• packet copied to system’s memory
• speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus crossings per
datagram)
input output
port memory port
(e.g., (e.g.,
Ethernet) Ethernet)
system bus

Switching via a bus
 datagram from input port memory
to output port memory via a shared bus
 bus contention: switching speed limited by
bus bandwidth
 32 Gbps bus, Cisco 5600: sufficient speed for
access and enterprise routers bus

Switching via interconnection network
 overcome bus bandwidth limitations
 banyan networks, crossbar, other
interconnection nets initially developed to
connect processors in multiprocessor
 advanced design: fragmenting datagram into
fixed length cells, switch cells through the
fabric.
crossbar
 Cisco 12000: switches 60 Gbps through the
interconnection network

Input port queuing
• fabric slower than input ports combined -> queueing may occur at
input queues
– queueing delay and loss due to input buffer overflow!
• Head-of-the-Line (HOL) blocking: queued datagram at front of
queue prevents others in queue from moving forward
switch switch
fabric fabric
output port contention: one packet time later:

only one red datagram can be green packet
transferred. experiences HOL
lower red packet is blocked blocking

Output ports This slide in HUGELY important!
datagram
switch buffer link
fabric layer line
protocol termination
queueing (send)
 buffering required when datagrams

Datagram arrive
(packets) can befrom
lost due
fabric faster than the transmission
to congestion,rate
lack of buffers
 scheduling discipline chooses among queued
datagrams for transmission
Priority scheduling – who gets best
performance, network neutrality

Output port queueing
switch
switch
fabric
fabric
at t, packets more one packet time later

from input to output
• buffering when arrival rate via switch exceeds output line speed
• queueing (delay) and loss due to output port buffer overflow!

How much buffering?
• RFC 3439 rule of thumb: average buffering equal to “typical” RTT
(say 250 msec) times link capacity C
– e.g., C = 10 Gpbs link: 2.5 Gbit buffer
• recent recommendation: with N flows, buffering equal to
RTT .C
N

Scheduling mechanisms
• scheduling: choose next packet to send on link
• FIFO (first in first out) scheduling: send in order of arrival to queue
– real-world example?
– discard policy: if packet arrives to full queue: who to discard?
• tail drop: drop arriving packet
• priority: drop/remove on priority basis
• random: drop/remove randomly
packet packet
arrivals queue link departures
(waiting area) (server)

Scheduling policies: priority
high priority queue
priority scheduling: send (waiting area)
highest priority queued arrivals departures
packet
• multiple classes, with classify link
different priorities low priority queue
(server)
(waiting area)
– class may depend on marking
or other header info, e.g. IP 2
1 3 4 5
source/dest, port numbers,
arrivals
etc.
– real world example? packet in
service 1 3 2 4 5
departures
1 3 2 4 5

Scheduling policies: still more
Round Robin (RR) scheduling:
• multiple classes
• cyclically scan class queues, sending one complete packet from
each class (if available)
• real world example?
2
1 3 4 5
arrivals
packet in
service 1 3 2 4 5
departures
1 3 3 4 5

Scheduling policies: still more
Weighted Fair Queuing (WFQ):
• generalized Round Robin
• each class gets weighted amount of service in each cycle
• real-world example?

Chapter 5: outline
– link stateplane
– data
– distance
– control vector
plane
5.5
a router
5.6
5.3 routing among
Protocol
– datagram
5.7 The SDN control
formatplane
– fragmentation
– IPv4 addressing
– IPv6
The Internet network layer
host, router network layer functions:
transport layer: TCP, UDP
routing protocols IP protocol

• path selection • addressing conventions
• RIP, OSPF, BGP • datagram format
network • packet handling conventions
layer forwarding
table
ICMP protocol
• error reporting
• router “signaling”
link layer
physical layer

IP datagram format
IP protocol version 32 bits
number total datagram
header length length (bytes)
ver head. type of length
(bytes) len service for
“type” of data fragment fragmentation/
16-bit identifier flgs
offset reassembly
max number time to upper header
remaining hops live layer checksum
(decremented at
32 bit source IP address
each router)
32 bit destination IP address
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to options (if any) e.g. timestamp,
record route
how much overhead? data taken, specify
 20 bytes of TCP (variable length, list of routers
 20 bytes of IP
typically a TCP to visit.
 = 40 bytes + app
or UDP segment)
layer overhead

IP fragmentation, reassembly
• network links have MTU
(max.transfer size) - largest
possible link-level frame fragmentation:
…
– different link types, different in: one large datagram
out: 3 smaller datagrams
MTUs
• large IP datagram divided
(“fragmented”) within net
reassembly
– one datagram becomes
several datagrams
– “reassembled” only at final
destination
…
– IP header bits used to
identify, order related
fragments
IP fragmentation, reassembly
length ID fragflag offset
example: =4000 =x =0 =0
 4000 byte datagram
one large datagram becomes
 MTU = 1500 bytes
several smaller datagrams
1480 bytes in length ID fragflag offset

data field =1500 =x =1(MF) =0
offset = length ID fragflag offset

1480/8 =1500 =x =1 (MF) =185
length ID fragflag offset

(Since the scaling factor of the fragment offset is 8) =1040 =x =0 (DF) =370

Chapter 5: outline
– link stateplane
– data
– distance
– control vector
plane
5.5
a router
5.6
5.3 routing among
Protocol
– datagram
5.7 The SDN control
formatplane
– fragmentation
– IPv4 addressing
– IPv6
IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
• IP address: 32-bit identifier 223.1.2.1

for host, router interface
223.1.1.2
• interface: connection 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
between host/router and

physical link 223.1.1.3
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
– router’s typically have multiple
interfaces
– host typically has one or two
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
interfaces (e.g., wired
Ethernet, wireless 802.11)
• IP addresses associated with
223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
each interface
223 1 1 1

IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
Q: how are interfaces actually 223.1.2.1

connected?
223.1.1.2
A: we’ll learn about that in 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
chapter 5, 6.
223.1.3.27
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.2
A: wired Ethernet interfaces connected

by Ethernet switches
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
For now: don’t need to worry about

how one interface is connected to
another (with no intervening
A: wireless WiFi interfaces connected
router)
by WiFi base station

IP Address Classes
37
Special IP addresses
38
Net & Subnet
• Routing operation inside a router:

– Routing prefix = (IP Address) AND (Net/Subnet mask)
– If Routing prefix (IP Source)  Routing prefix (IP Dest.) => route to
another network.
39
Subnet
• Borrow 2 bit
S S H H H H H H
– # of subnets = 22 = 4 = 00000100
– Subnet mask = 2 bits = 128 + 64 = 192 = 11000000
– Range of hosts = 26 = 64 = 01000000
Range Binary host
0 – 63 00 000000 – 00 111111 1 - 62
64 – 127 01 000000 – 01 111111 65 – 126
128 – 191 10 000000 – 10 111111 129 – 190
192 – 255 11 000000 – 11 111111 193 - 254
40
Subnet
• Borrow 3 bit
S S S H H H H H
– # of subnets
– Subnet mask
– Range of hosts
Range Binary Host
Net ID 0 – 31
32-63
64-95
96-127
128-159
160-191
192-223
Broadcast 224-255
41
Subnet
• Ex: Subnet for class C
/25 /26 /27 /28 /29 /30 /31 /32
42
Subnet
• All-zero subnet: broadcast of “parent”
• All-one subnet: network address of “parent”
before subnetting
•  Not to use 2 above-mentioned subnets to avoid
confusion.
•  No. of Subnets = 2n - 2
• However, some of latest network devices can
support to work for these subnets
43
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
• Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
– Limitation of IP class
• Class A –16+ million hosts
• Class B – 65,535 hosts
• Lớp C – 254 hosts
• Subnet Address Extensions
44
Public/Private IP
45
IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing

• subnet portion of address of arbitrary length
• address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in subnet
portion of address
subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23

IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: How does a host get IP address?
• hard-coded by system admin in a file

– Windows: control-panel->network->configuration->tcp/ip->properties
– UNIX: /etc/rc.config
• DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol: dynamically get
address from as server
– “plug-and-play”

Exercise
• A company has 3 departments with 30 PCs (total),
• Each department requires a private LAN (subnet) with 10PCs
• Design a LAN and assign IP addresses to this LAN

– What IP class we need to apply? Class C: 192.168.1.xx / 255.255.255.0
– 3 subnets (3 departments) => 192.168.1.xx/255.255.255.192
Network Layer 4-48

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address from network server when it
joins network
– can renew its lease on address in use
– allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while connected/“on”)
– support for mobile users who want to join network (more shortly)
DHCP overview:
– host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg [optional]
– DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg [optional]
– host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg
– DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg

DHCP client-server scenario
DHCP
223.1.1.0/24
server
223.1.1.1 223.1.2.1
223.1.1.2 arriving DHCP

223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
client needs
address in this
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2 network
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.0/24
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
223.1.3.0/24

DHCP client-server scenario
DHCP server: 223.1.2.5 DHCP discover arriving
client
src : 0.0.0.0, 68
Broadcast: is there a DHCP
dest.: 255.255.255.255,67
server
yiaddr:out0.0.0.0
there?
transaction ID: 654
DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
Broadcast: I’m a DHCP
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
server! Here’s an IP address
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction
you canID:use654
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: 0.0.0.0, 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
Broadcast: OK. I’ll take
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
that
IP address!
transaction ID: 655
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255,
Broadcast: OK. You’ve 68 got
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
that IP address!
transaction ID: 655
lifetime: 3600 secs

DHCP: more than IP addresses
DHCP can return more than just allocated IP address on subnet:
• address of first-hop router for client
• name and IP address of DNS sever
• network mask (indicating network versus host portion of address)

DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP  connecting laptop needs its IP
DHCP UDP
DHCP IP
address, addr of first-hop router,
DHCP Eth addr of DNS server: use DHCP
Phy
DHCP
 DHCP request encapsulated in
UDP, encapsulated in IP,
DHCP DHCP 168.1.1.1 encapsulated in 802.1 Ethernet
DHCP UDP
DHCP IP
Eth
 Ethernet frame broadcast (dest:
DHCP router with DHCP
Phy FFFFFFFFFFFF) on LAN, received at
server built into
router router running DHCP server
 Ethernet demuxed to IP
demuxed, UDP demuxed to
DHCP

DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP • DCP server formulates DHCP ACK
DHCP UDP containing client’s IP address, IP
DHCP IP address of first-hop router for
DHCP Eth
client, name & IP address of DNS
Phy
server
 encapsulation of DHCP
DHCP DHCP server, frame forwarded to
DHCP UDP client, demuxing up to
DHCP IP DHCP at client
DHCP Eth router with DHCP
DHCP
Phy server built into  client now knows its IP
router address, name and IP address
of DSN server, IP address of
its first-hop router

DHCP: Wireshark Message type: Boot Reply (2)
reply
output (home LAN)
Hardware type: Ethernet
Hardware address length: 6
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
Seconds elapsed: 0
Message type: Boot Request (1) Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast)
Hardware type: Ethernet Client IP address: 192.168.1.101 (192.168.1.101)
Hardware address length: 6 Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
request Next server IP address: 192.168.1.1 (192.168.1.1)
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Seconds elapsed: 0 Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast) Server host name not given
Client IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Boot file name not given
Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Magic cookie: (OK)
Next server IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP ACK
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Option: (t=54,l=4) Server Identifier = 192.168.1.1
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a) Option: (t=1,l=4) Subnet Mask = 255.255.255.0
Server host name not given Option: (t=3,l=4) Router = 192.168.1.1
Boot file name not given Option: (6) Domain Name Server
Magic cookie: (OK) Length: 12; Value: 445747E2445749F244574092;
Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP Request IP Address: 68.87.71.226;
Option: (61) Client identifier IP Address: 68.87.73.242;
Length: 7; Value: 010016D323688A; IP Address: 68.87.64.146
Hardware type: Ethernet Option: (t=15,l=20) Domain Name = "hsd1.ma.comcast.net."
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Option: (t=50,l=4) Requested IP Address = 192.168.1.101
Option: (t=12,l=5) Host Name = "nomad"
Option: (55) Parameter Request List
Length: 11; Value: 010F03062C2E2F1F21F92B
1 = Subnet Mask; 15 = Domain Name
3 = Router; 6 = Domain Name Server
44 = NetBIOS over TCP/IP Name Server
……

IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: how does network get subnet part of IP addr?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISP’s address space
ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/20
Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/23

Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 200.23.20.0/23
... ….. …. ….
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 200.23.30.0/23

Hierarchical addressing: route aggregation
hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing
information:
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
“Send me anything
200.23.18.0/23 with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16”

Hierarchical addressing: more specific routes
ISPs-R-Us has a more specific route to Organization 1
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
“Send me anything
with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
Organization 1 beginning 199.31.0.0/16
or 200.23.18.0/23”
200.23.18.0/23

IP addressing: the last word...
Q: how does an ISP get block of addresses?
A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers http://www.icann.org/
• allocates addresses
• manages DNS
• assigns domain names, resolves disputes

Chapter 5: outline
– link stateplane
– data
– distance
– control vector
plane
5.5
a router
5.6
5.3 routing among
Protocol
– datagram
5.7 The SDN control
formatplane
– fragmentation
– IPv4 addressing
– IPv6
NAT: network address translation
rest of local network
Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 10.0.0.1
10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7
10.0.0.3
all datagrams leaving local datagrams with source or

network have same single destination in this network
source NAT IP address: have 10.0.0/24 address for
138.76.29.7,different source source, destination (as usual)
port numbers
motivation: local network uses just one IP address as far as outside
world is concerned:
 range of addresses not needed from ISP: just one IP
address for all devices
 can change addresses of devices in local network without
notifying outside world
 can change ISP without changing addresses of devices in
local network
 devices inside local net not explicitly addressable, visible
by outside world (a security plus)
implementation: NAT router must:
 outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port #) of every outgoing

datagram to (NAT IP address, new port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP address,
new port #) as destination addr
 remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP address, port #) to (NAT IP
address, new port #) translation pair
 incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port #) in dest fields of every
incoming datagram with corresponding (source IP address, port #) stored in NAT
table

NAT translation table 1: host 10.0.0.1
2: NAT router WAN side addr LAN side addr
changes datagram sends datagram to
source addr from 138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1, 3345 to …… ……
138.76.29.7, 5001,
updates table S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1
1
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
2 D: 128.119.40.186, 80 10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7 S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 3 10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
3: reply arrives changes datagram
dest. address: dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345
* Check out the online interactive exercises for more

examples: http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive/ Network Layer: Data Plane 4-64
• 16-bit port-number field:
– 60,000 simultaneous connections with a single LAN-side
address!
• NAT is controversial:
– routers should only process up to layer 3
– address shortage should be solved by IPv6
– violates end-to-end argument
• NAT possibility must be taken into account by app designers,
e.g., P2P applications
– NAT traversal: what if client wants to connect to server
behind NAT?

Chapter 5: outline
– link state
– data plane
– distance vector
– control plane
5.5
a router
5.6
5.3 routing among
Protocol
5.7 The SDN control
– datagram formatplane
– fragmentation
– IPv4 addressing
– network address
translation
– IPv6 Data Plane Control Plane
IPv6: motivation
• initial motivation: 32-bit address space soon to be completely
allocated.
• additional motivation:
– header format helps speed processing/forwarding
– header changes to facilitate QoS
IPv6 datagram format:

– fixed-length 40 byte header
– no fragmentation allowed

IPv6 datagram format
priority: identify priority among datagrams in flow
flow Label: identify datagrams in same “flow.”
(concept of“flow” not well defined).
next header: identify upper layer protocol for data
ver pri flow label
payload len next hdr hop limit
source address
(128 bits)
destination address
(128 bits)
data
32 bits
Other changes from IPv4
• checksum: removed entirely to reduce processing time at each hop
• options: allowed, but outside of header, indicated by “Next Header”
field
• ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
– additional message types, e.g. “Packet Too Big”
– multicast group management functions

Transition from IPv4 to IPv6
• not all routers can be upgraded simultaneously
– no “flag days”
– how will network operate with mixed IPv4 and IPv6
routers?
• tunneling: IPv6 datagram carried as payload in IPv4 datagram
among IPv4 routers
IPv4 header fields IPv6 header fields

IPv4 payload
IPv4 source, dest addr IPv6 source dest addr
UDP/TCP payload
IPv6 datagram
IPv4 datagram
Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6
A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6
A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6
flow: X src:B src:B flow: X

src: A dest: E src: A
dest: F
dest: E
dest: F
Flow: X Flow: X
Src: A Src: A
data Dest: F Dest: F data
data data
A-to-B: E-to-F:
IPv6 B-to-C: B-to-C: IPv6
IPv6 inside IPv6 inside
IPv4 IPv4 Network Layer: Data Plane 4-72
IPv6: adoption
• Google: 8% of clients access services via IPv6
• NIST: 1/3 of all US government domains are IPv6 capable
• Long (long!) time for deployment, use

–20 years and counting!
–think of application-level changes in last 20 years: WWW, Facebook,
streaming media, Skype, …
–Why?

Chapter 4: outline
– link
– datastate
plane
– distance
– controlvector
plane
5.5 intra-AS
5.2 What’s routing
inside in the Internet: OSPF
a router
5.3 IP:
5.6 Internet
routing Protocol
among the ISPs: BGP
– datagram
5.7 The format plane
SDN control
– fragmentation
– IPv4 addressing
– IPv6
– Generalized Forward and
SDN Data Plane Control Plane
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 Overview of Network layer 4.4 Generalized Forward and SDN
– data plane – match
– control plane – action
4.2 What’s inside a router – OpenFlow examples of
4.3 IP: Internet Protocol match-plus-action in action
– datagram format
– fragmentation
– IPv4 addressing
– network address
translation
– IPv6
Generalized Forwarding and SDN
Each router contains a flow table that is computed and distributed
by a logically centralized routing controller
logically-centralized routing controller
control plane
data plane
local flow table
headers counters actions
1
0100 1101
3 2
values in arriving
packet’s header
OpenFlow data plane abstraction
• flow: defined by header fields
• generalized forwarding: simple packet-handling rules
– Pattern: match values in packet header fields
– Actions: for matched packet: drop, forward, modify, matched packet or send
matched packet to controller
– Priority: disambiguate overlapping patterns
– Counters: #bytes and #packets
Flow table in a router (computed and distributed by

controller) define router’s match+action rules
OpenFlow data plane abstraction
• flow: defined by header fields
• generalized forwarding: simple packet-handling rules
– Pattern: match values in packet header fields
– Actions: for matched packet: drop, forward, modify, matched packet or send
matched packet to controller
– Priority: disambiguate overlapping patterns
– Counters: #bytes and #packets
* : wildcard
1. src=1.2.*.*, dest=3.4.5.*  drop
2. src = *.*.*.*, dest=3.4.*.*  forward(2)
3. src=10.1.2.3, dest=*.*.*.*  send to controller
OpenFlow: Flow Table Entries
Rule Action Stats
Packet + byte counters

1. Forward packet to port(s)
2. Encapsulate and forward to controller
3. Drop packet
4. Send to normal processing pipeline
5. Modify Fields
Switch VLAN MAC MAC Eth IP IP IP TCP TCP

Port ID src dst type Src Dst Prot sport dport
Link layer Network layer Transport layer

Examples
Destination-based forwarding:
Switch MAC MAC Eth VLAN IP IP IP TCP TCP
Action
Port src dst type ID Src Dst Prot sport dport
* * * * * * 51.6.0.8 * * * port6
IP datagrams destined to IP address 51.6.0.8 should
be forwarded to router output port 6
Firewall:
Forward
* * * * * * * * * 22 drop
do not forward (block) all datagrams destined to TCP port 22

Forward
* * * * * 128.119.1.1
* * * * drop
do not forward (block) all datagrams sent by host 128.119.1.1
Examples
Destination-based layer 2 (switch) forwarding:
Action
22:A7:23:
* 11:E1:02 * * * * * * * * port3
layer 2 frames from MAC address 22:A7:23:11:E1:02
should be forwarded to output port 6

OpenFlow abstraction
 match+action: unifies different kinds of devices
 Router  Firewall
• match: longest • match: IP addresses
destination IP prefix and TCP/UDP port
• action: forward out a numbers
link • action: permit or deny
 Switch  NAT
• match: destination • match: IP address and
MAC address port
• action: forward or • action: rewrite address
flood and port
OpenFlow example
Example: datagrams from
hosts h5 and h6 should be
sent to h3 or h4, via s1 and
match action from there to s2
IP Src = 10.3.*.* Host h6
forward(3)
IP Dst = 10.2.*.* 10.3.0.6
1 s3 controller
2
3 4
Host h5
10.3.0.5
1 s1 1 s2
2 Host h4
4 2 4
Host h1 10.2.0.4
3 3
10.1.0.1
Host h2
10.1.0.2 match action
match action Host h3
ingress port = 2
10.2.0.3 forward(3)
ingress port = 1 IP Dst = 10.2.0.3
IP Src = 10.3.*.* forward(4) ingress port = 2
forward(4)
IP Dst = 10.2.*.* IP Dst = 10.2.0.4
Chapter 5: Summary!
4.1 Overview of Network layer: 4.4 Generalized Forward and
data plane and control plane SDN
4.2 What’s inside a router • match plus action
4.3 IP: Internet Protocol • OpenFlow example
• datagram format
• fragmentation
• IPv4 addressing Question: how do forwarding tables
• NAT (destination-based forwarding) or flow
• IPv6 tables (generalized forwarding) computed?
Answer: by the control plane (next section)

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COMPUTER NETWORKS

THE NETWORK LAYER

• transport segments from sending transport

• on sending side: encapsulates network

segments into datagrams physical network

• router examines header fields in network

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-3

network-layer functions: analogy: taking a trip

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-4

Data plane Control plane

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-5

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-6

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-7

example services for example services for a flow

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-8

Internet best effort none no no no no (inferred

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-9

router input ports router output ports

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-11

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-13

11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

Q: but what happens if ranges don’t divide up so nicely?

Destination Address Range Link interface

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-16

memory bus crossbar

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-17

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-18

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-19

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-20

output port contention: one packet time later:

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-21

 buffering required when datagrams

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-22

at t, packets more one packet time later

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-23

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-24

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-25

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-26

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-27

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-28

transport layer: TCP, UDP

routing protocols IP protocol

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-30

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-31

1480 bytes in length ID fragflag offset

offset = length ID fragflag offset

length ID fragflag offset

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-33

• IP address: 32-bit identifier 223.1.2.1

between host/router and

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-35

Q: how are interfaces actually 223.1.2.1

A: wired Ethernet interfaces connected

For now: don’t need to worry about

Network Layer: Data Plane 4-36

• Routing operation inside a router:

/25 /26 /27 /28 /29 /30 /31 /32