Geography of Population and Settlement

Geography of Population and
Settlement
Lecture slides prepared from the Information compiled
from various study materials of the subject of Geography
of Population and Settlement
By
Yidnekachew Solomon
College of social Science and humanity
Department of Geography and Environmental studies
1
Course objectives
• At the end of the course students will be able to
 are expected to learn basic concepts related to population
geography.
 Differentiate the term population geography from population
studies
 Identify the main sources of demographic data
 Comprehend the pattern of world population distribution

2
Course objectives... Cont’d
 Recognize the dynamics of population change and their
implication on population size
 Understand the various theories of population and their
application in the real world
 Understand the population-environment nexus.
 Identify the types of population policies being implemented

by different countries of the world including Ethiopia.
3
Chapter One: Introduction
1.Introduction of population Geography and
Settlement & other concepts.
• Population in biological view refers to a level of
organisms group where all organisms are belonging to
the same species like a group of ants or plant or
insects or human being living together which can
mate each other.
• Hence, a single organism cannot be a population if it is

not interactive with those belonging to its species
rather it is called organism.
4
Introduction of population Geography and Settlement & other concepts Cont’d
• On the other hand, organisms belonging to two or

more different species cannot be a population rather a
group of populations called community. Thus, a group
of individuals or organisms form population and a
group of populations form community.
• Therefore, population is a group of organisms of the
same species within well-defined occupation or area.
• However, population as to this course refers to human
population with specified political boundary
5
Introduction of population Geography and
Settlement & other concepts Cont’d
• Why do we study human population?
we study human population because people
create society’s material and spiritual needs/ for
example, human beings change virgin lands
into productive lands.
They also determine the growth of urban center,
etc.
Similarly population is the main source of labor
force for agricultural industrial and service
rendering economic sectors. 6
Introduction of population Geography Settlement and & other concepts. Cont’d
•Why do we study human population?

It also important to identify composition of population for the assignment of human
resources with their respective capacity and skill, hence we need population study
to plan and allocate budget with level of demand.

Studying population is also needed to balance the supply and production of
economy with the number of population.

Moreover, it is need to enact appropriate policy regarding population itself and
environment or development, military as well.
7
.
1.1 Meaning, Scope and Historical Development of Population Geography
• The term population has wider notion, it includes three

major independent and interrelated types of biotic
elements.
• It encompasses plant population, animal population and
human population
• Among the biotic elements, human population is the main
focus of geographers.
• Life, death and movement are the stuff of which population
studies is made
8
Meaning, Scope and Historical Development of Population Geography ..... Cont’d
• Population geography is a compound term formed by
combining two words, population and geography.
• Geography is a scientific discipline concerned

with variations in the spatial distribution of
features on the surface of the earth.
9
Meaning, Scope and Historical Development of Population Geography ..... Cont’d
Population geography is a compound term formed by combining two words, population and geography
Geography is a scientific discipline • Population refers to an

concerned with variations in the aggregate of people or of
spatial distribution of features on animals or of plants residing in
the surface of the earth. geographic area
• The term population is also used
 It tries to identify, describe, and for more distinctive or sectoral
understand and explain variations in
the distributions.
subgroups such as female
population, school population,
and French speaking population.
• This sectoral definition does not
relate directly to specific
geographic area.
10
Meaning, Scope and Historical Development of Population
Geography ..... Cont’d
• The term population is also used to designate "a

particular group of people under the study" such as
employees in a company, or parents of the school
children, patients in a hospital, or part of the society
under investigation.
• The focus of population geography is human
population relating with the areal concept.
11
Population geography • understanding the aerial differences of human
Population population on the earth’s surface.
geography
concerned with • It is basically deals with the spatial variation of
the distribution, growth and migration of
population as related to the varying
characteristics of the earth.
• Or, shortly, population geography is a subset of human geography

that focuses on:
 Location, Spatio -temporal patterns and processes of demographic
events
• The analysis of human-environment interaction
• Geographers wish to know why that distribution
12
The scope of population geography:
• This sub-discipline treats a wider range of issues and it attempts to cover many
aspects of human population.
•Even if the scopes of population are many and diverse in nature but they can be
summarized as follows by grouping them into three groups; thus, the main focus
includes:
Spatial distribution of population: main emphasis is space and the manner it is

occupying.

Evolution of human settlement. it encompasses the form, spacing, types, size and
hierarchical arrangement of settlement
13
The scope of population geography: Cont’d
• There for, the study of settlement is the main concern of

human geography.
• This is because the size and type of settlement reflects
man’s relationship with the environment.
 Degree of success which people have acquired.
• This refers to the socio-economic development stage of a given
population.
• Population geography studies a wide range of phenomena’s among
them the following are the major concerns of the subject: 14
Development of population geography:
• population geography as a recognized branch of

geography was emerged and developed in the
1950s
• The main reasons for the rapid change of the
subject after 1953, are the following.
15
The main reasons for the rapid change of the subject
after1953,are the following.
Population dynamics  The academic evolution

that is birth, death and
migration. of population geography
and demography.
The availability of data
and the presence of
facilities to handle them  The change in political
structure and policies
 The population related
problems After ww II
16
after1953,are the following. ….Cont’d
 Population dynamics that is birth, death and

migration .
The rapid growth of world population and
growing awareness of the people on rapidly
increasing population pave the way for
geographers to know human and their
demographic characteristics.
17
 The availability of data and the presence of

facilities to handle them.
After ww II most countries in the world conduct a

regular census periodically.
18
 The population related problems:
 It is obviously clear that rapid growth of population is
a global problem and this condition is more acute in
less developed countries.
 rapid growth of population as the major cause that worsening
conditions of - deforestation,
- hunger,
- malnutrition,
- rapid urbanization and associated social and economic ills,
political instability and growing mass property. 19
• But in more developed countries the implication of

population problem is identified by
- air and water pollution,
- depletion of energy and mineral resource are

among the serious issues to be mentioned.
 The academic evolution of population geography and demography.
After 1950’s, 1060’s and 1970’s the study of fertility, mortality

and migration have enhanced by various scholars in deferent
parts of the world.
20
 The change in political structure and policies After

ww II
large number of independent countries was

emerged especially in Africa, Asia and Latin
America, as the result local governments began
feeling more responsibility for their own
population related problems.
21
1.2 Population Geography and Other Related Disciplines
• Human population is a multi-disciplinary issue and

is a common subject matter to a number of social
sciences including geography.
• Population studies therefore are not the exclusive
domain of any single social science.
22
Population Geography and Other Related
Disciplines…..Cont’d
• Other than geography, demography, sociology,

anthropology, economics, political science and
history study human population in own (different)
perspectives.
• However, each of this field of study has its own
particular objective and employs a different approach
to study population
23
1. Population Geography
- is the one concerned with the inherent (genetic) or

dynamic aspects of spatial variations over time, or how
spatial relations or interactions between phenomena
occur.
- It is more concerned with spatial variations in

population and their relations with physical, cultural
and economic phenomena. 24
2. Demography
- is much more concerned with the intrinsic nature and
universal attributes of populations and with a
temporal, rather than spatial dimension.
- It is more interested in the number of births, deaths,

marriages, divorces and the like.
25
3. Sociology:
• sociology is the study of development, structure,
interaction and behavior of organized groups of
human beings.
• Here, the focus is on social organization of people
into different institutions like religion, language,
ethnicity etc
26
4. Anthropology
• is one of the social sciences that specialize in
the study of the evolution of human
population and its classification into different
racial groups.
27
Anthropology…..Cont’d
• it is the study of human species and their various
diversities (Socio-cultural, linguistic, physical, and
archaeological) across time.
28
5. History-
• history treats human population in temporal
perspective;
• hence it employs chronological approach
while geography does it in spatial context.
29
6. Economics:
• the main thrust here is the economic implications of
people.
• Hence, the population resources relationship is a vital
issue without considering the space-population
relationship as its basis.
30
7. Political Science:
• the main thrust of political scientists is the political
implication of people.
• N.B. The difference in the study of human population by
geographers or other social scientists lies in their
approaches of studies. Population geography differs
from others in that it threats human population in the
context of spatial variation. 31

1.3 Sources and uses of population data
• Human population is therefore, the leading creature

that plays a great role in this world
• demographic data are important in providing
factual basis for decisions on matters of public policy
and action concerning social and economic affairs.
32
Sources and uses of population data…Cont’d
• These data can be processed to indicate present and

future requirements of the population in terms of the
types and extent of social needs of the society such as
health, education and employment
• The major sources of demographic data include:
• Census
• Registration of vital events (Records)
• Sample Surveys
• Ad-hoc demographic studies 33
a) Census :has a long history and taking started nearly

6000 years ago:
-Babylonians are said to be the pioneers in the field,
followed later on by other civilizations, including the
Persian, Greeks, Romans and the various Chinese
dynasties; particular section of the community were
enumerated mostly males for identification of military
aged group in the early civilization census
34
• Census ….
- But modern censuses were first held in the

17th century.
- By the end of eighteenth and beginning of

the nineteenth century many countries had
held their first censuses.
35
• Census ….
 Census most referred to be population and housing
census.
NB. The United Nations defines a population census as in

(UN, 1958).
“ the total process of collecting, compiling, and
publishing demographic, economic, and social data
pertaining to a specific time to all persons in a country
or delimited part of a country” 36
• Census ….
• census is defined as an enumeration or complete
population count at a point in time within a
specified geographical area.
• A census provides more reliable and accurate data if

properly enumerated.
37
• Housing census is
• “the process of collecting, compiling and

publishing information on buildings, living
quarters and building-related facilities such
as sewage systems, bathrooms, and
electricity, to name a few” (UN, 1958) .
38
• Housing census is
. OR Housing census is the total process of

collecting, compiling, evaluating, analyzing
and publishing statistical data pertaining at a
specific time to all living quarters and
occupants thereof in a country or in a well
delimited part of it.
39
Essential Features of Census:
• unlike other sources of data, population census is
uniquely characterized by a number of conditions.
• Some of the most notable salient features of census are the
followings i) Universality
ii) Periodicity:
iii) Simultaneity
iv) Government Sponsorship
v) Defined Territory
vi) Expensiveness and
vi) Wider Range of Data 40

Essential Features of Census….Cont’d
• I ) Universality:
• it refers to the need to include every individual and
housing quarter in a given area or, if sampling is used.
• the need to give every member of a stratum the same
likelihood of inclusion.
• Universality of census implies also that neglecting and
duplication are avoided.
41
• ii) Periodicity
• there should be a defined time gap between censuses/ census is

taken at regular defined intervals.
• A reference period is predetermined for the enumeration and the
entire population is counted with reference to that point of time.
• In several countries including Ethiopia that interval between two
successive censuses is ten years (decennial).
• In some other countries (e.g. UK and Japan) census is conducted
every five years interval.
42
iii) Simultaneity:
• enumeration or conducting counting of each person
and living quarter simultaneously.
• Or, conducting count of each person and living
quarter simultaneously.
43
• iv) Government Sponsorship

• Unlike many other sources, the census is necessarily
a government sponsored activity.
• Governments arrange, finance and implement census

plans. They monitor and control also the entire
process of census administration.
44
• v) Defined Territory
• Census covers a precisely defined territory such as
the entire country or a well-defined part of it called
enumeration district or unit
45
• vi) Expensiveness:
• Undertaking of census process is one of the most
expensive sources of population data.
• This has limited the development of census operations

scientifically in the less developed countries.
46
• vi) Wider Range of Data:

• It is the only form of population data source which
produces a wider range of large volume of data for all
users.
47
Steps in Conducting Census
• The major steps to be followed in a census

include.
 Planning and preparation
 Collecting information
 Compilation and analysis
 Evaluation
48
Steps in Conducting Census…..Cont’d
• Before 1970 countries of the world were used varied

quantities of data in a census (range from 12-24).
• …………but from 1970 onwards the UN has prepared a

list of recommended questions and other useful topics
to be covered by a census.
49
Steps in Conducting Census… Cont’d
 The recommended topics/variables can be put

into four groups as follows:
1. Geographical and internal migration
characteristics.
(a) place where found at the time of census,
(b) place of usual residence,
(c) place of birth,
(d) duration of residence, and
(e) place of previous residence
50
The recommended topics/variables can be put into Census… Cont’d
2 . Demographic and social

characteristics.
(a) sex, • (g) citizenship,
(b) age, • (h) literacy & educational
attainment,
(c) age at marriage,
• (i) ethnic group,
(d) duration of marriage,
• (j) language,
(e) children born alive,
• (k) religion, and
(f) children living
• (l) no deaths in the last 12
months
51
The recommended topics/variables can be put into
Census… Cont’d
3. Household and family characteristics
(a) relationship to head of
family/household,
(b) household & family composition
(c) household & family status
52
The recommended topics/variables can be put into
Census… Cont’d
4.Economic characteristics.
(a) type of activity,
(b) occupation,
(c) industry,
(d) status (as employer, employee, etc.)

(e) income
(f) time worked and
(g) place of work
53
NB
The use of the above noted contents commonly used
by all census organizations brings some sort of
homogeneity in census enumeration of various
countries.
This ultimately would help comparability of census
results at global scale.
54
Possible Uses of Census Information
When two or more census counts are
Total Population Size compared for the same location,
planners can determine if locales are
increasing or decreasing in size.
Age and Sex Used to help identify segments of the

population that require different types
of services.
Sex Sex ratios can be calculated by 5-year
age groups to crudely observe
migration, especially among the
working age cohorts.
55
Marital Status Used to provide insights into family

formation and housing needs.
Household Used to help determine housing needs for

Composition and Size related and unrelated households.
Educational Attainment •Used to provide information on the educational

skills of the work force.
and Literacy
•These measures also help planners select the best
strategies to communicate with residents.
56
Location of Residence Helps assess changes in rural and urban
areas.
and Place of Prior
Place of prior residence helps to identify
Residence
communities that are experiencing in- or out-
migration.
Occupation and Labor Helps to provide insights into the

Force Participation labor force of a given locale.
The information can be used to
develop economic development
strategies.
Living Quarter Characteristics Can help planners determine housing
and community facility needs.
57
Living Quarter Characteristics Can help planners determine

housing and community facility
needs
58
Differences in the methods used have brought variation in
the data coverage, both by type and quantity, by different
census organizations.
As a result of which international population data suffers

from lack of comparability.
59
 To avoid or minimize prevailing heterogeneity(diversity) in
data gathering, the UN has recommended that all census
organizations of the world should commonly include the
following eight important features of population from the
afromentioned four groups:
 total population;
 sex, age and marital status;
 place of birth, citizenship or nationality;
………………………………………
60
 mother tongue, literacy and educational
qualification;
 economic characteristics;
 household or family structure;
 fertility; and
61
widely used techniques of conducting
census
• Now days there are two most widely used techniques of
conducting census, these are:
• Defacto and
• De jure
• 1. De facto Approach:-
• In this approach each person is recorded or counted where he or

she is found at the time of the census taking.
• The United Kingdom is one of the leading countries that adopted
this approach. 62
De facto Approach:-…..Cont’d
• Under this system a date is fixed for the whole country.
• Usually such operation is conducted at night.
• Nights are preferred to days due to the fact that after

daylong work the people will be back to their homes at
night.
• At such night all those who are found anywhere are

counted wherever found.
63
• The de facto method of population census enumeration

has its own merits and demerits.
• a) The followings are noted as the strength (advantages)

of the system:
 Quiet simple and more or less inclusive (individuals);
 Time consumed for the whole operation is very
limited; and
 There is less chance for the omission and double
counting of persons.
64
• b) Contrary to the above noted merits the de facto

system shows the following drawbacks:
 Night time is a time when people want to take rest. They

are tired after day work and as such no enumerator is
welcomed at this time.
 As the time limit is very short, efforts are made to put as

few questions as possible. This prohibits the collection
of maximum information. 65
• Difficult to obtain information regarding persons in

transit. These are persons who are, for example
travelling and have left their area of permanent
residence but haven’t reached the area of destination
during the census day.
• Thus, it may provide incorrect picture of the
population in a community.
66
2. De jure Approach:-
• In this method people are counted in the census
according to their normal place of residence.
• Hence temporary residents are not included.
• This method was used in Palestine at the time of

Christ's birth and today is used in the United States.
67
De jure Approach:-…Cont’d
• De jure Approach:-…Cont’d
• Under this system a census period is fixed after
taking into consideration area covered and people to
be dealt with.
• Usually two to three weeks are allotted to complete
census registration.
68
• As in the de facto system de jure method has some
merits and demerits.
• a) Some of the advantages include:
 Sufficient time period to complete the work and
data on various aspects etc., can be collected.
 It gives permanent picture of a community.
 It provides more realistic and useful statistics.
69
• Difficult to collect data on those persons who have no
permanent residence and it is also tricky to have
correct data for persons who have more than one
residence and people who are homeless.
70
• Some persons may be omitted from the count.
• A household member who is temporarily away from

home may be missed from being counted unless the
enumerator makes sure that nobody is missing.
71
• Some may be counted twice

• Information collected regarding persons away
from home is often incomplete or incorrect
72
• Yet de facto enumeration tends to inflate the

population totals - of holiday,
- resorts and
-places containing sizeable
institutions such as universities and colleges, army
barracks, hospitals and prisons.
73
• It is worth noting that both the de facto and de jure

methods have their own merits and demerits.
• It is worth noting that both the de facto and de jure
methods have their own merits and demerits.
• Therefore, there is no single system that is complete
and adopted all over the world.
74
• These techniques of census employs to methods of

data gathering:
I. Sending enumerators to visit all dwellings and
II. Declaration.
 Sending enumerators to visit all dwellings involves
sending enumerators to all residences, and they
make a house-to house enumeration.

75
Sending enumerators to visit all dwellings….Cont’d
• Ethiopian experience is an example in this
case.
• Despite all its usefulness, the effectiveness of

this method decreases with increasing area and
people to be covered.
• The process may take weeks or months.

76
 The declaration approach
• The declaration approach on the other hand is the

one where heads of families are summoned to
declare their composition to the authorities.
77
• b). Vital Registration: is also called civil

registration is a regular and continuous registration
of vital events.
• It is the continuous, permanent, compulsory and legal
recording of the occurrence & the characteristics of
vital events.
78
• Vital Registration….Cont’d
• By recording vital events like
• birth,
• death,
• divorce,
• migration, abortion(fetal death and stillbirth) and

annulment enables rates of population growth to be
calculated but much less adequate than national census.
79
• Vital Registration….Cont’d
• Another problem with this source is that in developing

countries where illiteracy rates are high and
communications are poor the problems of recording
vital events (birth and deaths) are immense.
80
Important principles of a Vital Registration
system:
• Important principles of a Vital Registration system:

 Universal coverage
 Continuity
 Confidentiality
 Regular dissemination
81
Important principles of a Vital Registration system:
….Cont’d
• Universal coverage:
• A vital statistics system should include all vital events

occurring in every geographic area and in every
population group comprising the national area.
82
….Cont’d
• Continuity:
• Continuity is important to insure that short-term

fluctuations including seasonal movements, as well as
long-term movements will be accounted for.
83
….Cont’d
• Confidentiality:
• It is important to safeguard confidentiality of personal

information and vital records to insure that use of
information and data for specific administrative and
statistical purposes is consistent with the intended
uses of the records.
84
….Cont’d
• Regular dissemination:
• The minimum requirements for using vital statistics
should include
a) the provision of monthly or quarterly summary,
and b) “the production of detailed annual tabulations
of each type of vital event across classified by its
demographic and socioeconomic characteristics.”
85
• N.B. censuses provide a cross-sectional (one point in
time) portrayal of the
- size,
- composition,
- and distribution of the population,
• registration systems pertain to the population’s
demographic events (births and deaths and, in some
places, migrations) and measure them as they occur.
86
• censuses are periodic, registers are dynamic and
continuous;
• The continuous nature of registering and data analysis
in vital registration remains the main difference
between census and vital registration system.
87
The use of vital registration
• It is used as a legal documents having evidential

value to individuals.
• The registered statistical data is used for research
purpose, population estimation and projection.
88
The use of vital registration…Cont’d
• They are utilized by administrators for planning

facilities, such as education, health, nutrition,
employment for their people.
• It is useful for furnishing information for development

programs, for instance to plan the production and
supply of food based on the rate of population growth
89
• c). Sample survey:

• is another source of demographic data in a
scientifically selected area which covers only a
section or portion (sample) of the population under
consideration.
90
• c). Sample survey….Cont’d
• In this technique population data is collected only
from the sample of the total population.
• sample taken should be representative of the whole

population so that the conclusion would be
acceptable (dependable).
91
• Sample survey….Cont’d
• Representative sample surveys are another source of
population data, including
- national,
- regional,
- or state/province representative sample surveys that
collect population information on individuals and/or
households.
92
Uses of population data
 population data is important set of guidelines for different
purposes like:
 apportionment of representatives in a legislative

body,
 to study population movements,
 to determine the existing population-resource

balance/imbalance,
93
Uses of population data….Cont’d
 Private businesses require census data for their

market analyses and advertising activities
 In the early days, it was useful to determine the

tax rate and knew its people who attain specific
age for military purpose
94
 It is helpful to indicate current and future of

socio- economic needs of the population.
 It is important for business men to know the age,

demand and economic status of their customers.
95
• It helps policy makers to predict the need of its

population and how to meet them.
• It is vital for monitoring current demographic trends

and helpful for carrying our scientific study.
96
Factors affecting the quality of population
data:
• In any data set, errors can be introduced in multiple

ways, including the data collection process itself.
• For a census to be universal, everyone must be
counted, but problems arise when some individuals
or groups, such as the homeless, are difficult to
count or refuse to be counted.
97
Factors affecting the quality of population data
• The following are the major factors affecting the

quality of population data:
 In adequate finance;
 Under or over counting
 Filling wrong data by the respondents
particularly on sensitive issues like income.
98
Factors affecting the quality of population
data….Cont’d
 In adequate knowledge and awareness about the

importance of population data.
 Social and political instability.

 Lack of skills and experiences of enumerators and
trainer.
99
100
Chapter Two
WORLD POPULATION GROWTH AND
DISTRIBUTION
101
Introduction
• Populations are dynamic entities.
• Over time they grow or decline, they become

younger or older and their geographic
distribution changes.
• Such changes are the cumulative effects of the

events that people undergo during their lives,
namely births, deaths and migrations.
102
• The term population growth implies the
increase in number of human population on the
surface of the earth or in any geographic region
or area.
• A country’s population growth rate depends on
the natural increase and on migration, while
world population growth is determined
exclusively by the natural increase.
103
• In this regard, a “natural population increase”
occurs when the birth rate is higher than the
death rate.
• The total number of living humans on Earth is
now greater than 7 billion.
104
• This big size of the world population is due to a
very recent development.
• Just around 200 years ago the world population was
less 1 billion.
• Since the 18th century the world population was
rapidly increasing.
105
• Between 1900 and 2000 the increase of the world
population was three times as great as the increase
during the entire previous history of humankind – in just
100 years the world population increased from 1.5 to
6.1 billion.
• As we approach to the end of 20th C, further

demographic changes are underway with, for the first
time in recent human history, a slowing down of world
population growth recorded.
106
• Currently in both developed and lately in developing
world, decline in fertility rates is being observed.
• Demographic momentum is the continued growth of

the population despite low fertility rates because of a
concentration of the population in the fertile ages
(roughly 15–45).
107
1.2 Trends of World Population Growth
• Much of the history of world population has been

characterized by slow growth; for instance, during
hunting and gathering stage of human history.
• Since the Agricultural and Industrial Revolution,

human populations have experienced a period of
explosive growth.
108
Trends of World Population Growth….Cont’d
• The world population goes through different changes;
I. The first part of the world history of population

growth was the very long time of very slow
population growth.
II. The second period started with the onset of
modernity (with rising standards of living and
improving health) and lasted until 1962.
109
• Now the period of increasingly quicker growth is also

over and in 1962.
III. The third part of the story began: the population
growth rate is falling and will continue falling so we
will stop growing before the end of this century.
110
• To be sure, the growth patterns were uneven.

• The world population took over one million years for
human population to reach the one billion mark.
• But the second billion was added in about 100 years,

the third billion in 50 years, the fourth in 15 years,
and the fifth in 12 years.
111
World Population Changes in Time: Population Growth( 1AD- 2050)
14
13
12
11
10
Population ( billion)
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 1 AD 1300 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 1975 1980 2000 2050
Year
112
• Current population growth varies widely by region, being
high in Africa and parts of Asia and lower in Europe and

Japan, with the Americas somewhere in between.
113
The table above expresses that rapid population growth has occurred since 2 nd quarter of the
20 century.
Year World population Time to add 1 billion

1804 1 billion NK
Year 2 billion 123 years
1960 3 billion 33 years
114
• In the past 50 years the world has experienced an

unprecedented increase in population growth.
• In the past, infant and childhood deaths and short
life spans used to limit population growth.
• In today's world, thanks to improved nutrition,
sanitation, medical care and living standard, more
babies survive their first few years of life.
115
2.2 World population explosion: Causes
and Consequences
• The combination of a continuing high birth rate and a low
death rate is creating a rapid population increase in many
countries in Asia, Latin America and Africa and people
generally lived longer.
• There has been a dramatic reduction in the doubling time of
the global human population, as we have already discussed.
• In the 20th century, human population has grown much
faster than ever before.
116
World population explosion: Causes and
Consequences
• This unprecedented growth of human population at

an alarming rate over a relatively short period is
referred to as population explosion.
• The population explosion is mainly seen in many

countries of Asia, South America and Africa.
117
Consequences……Cont’d
• Generally, unprecedented population growth has

multiple of impacts on environmental, economic,
social and political situation of the world as whole.
 Over Exploitation of Natural Resources
• The Earth has limited natural resources in the form
of water, fauna and flora, minerals, power resources
and soils.
118
• Out of them, some are renewable and some are non-

renewable resources.
• The non-renewable resources are being extinct( destroyed,
vanished ) because of over utilization.
• Consequently, due to high growth in population, the

requirements of the people increased at a tremendous rate
and consequently, the natural resources were unexpectedly
over exploited.
119
 Land degradation
• Land degradation- is a composite term; it has no single
readily identifiable feature, but instead describes how one
or more of the land resources (soil, water, vegetation,
rocks, air, climate, relief) has changed for the worse.

• Unplanned population growth leads to a significant reduction
of the productive capacity of land.
120
• Land degradation…….Cont’d
• Human activities contributing to land degradation

include unsustainable agricultural land use, poor soil and
water management practices, deforestation, removal of
natural vegetation, frequent use of heavy machinery,
overgrazing, improper crop rotation and poor irrigation
practices.
• Natural disasters, including drought, floods and landslides also
contribute.
121
 Economic stagnation
• In poor societies population sizes often double in two
or three decades.
• As a result, industries, housing, schools, health
clinics, and infrastructure must be built at least at
the same rate in order for standards of living not to
deteriorate.
122
• Economic stagnation…..Cont’d
Many communities are unable to keep up, as is evident
from
 high unemployment rates,
 explosive growth of slum populations,
 overcrowded schools and health facilities
 and dilapidated public infrastructure(i.e. roads,
bridges, sewage systems, piped water, electric power,
etc) 123
World population explosion: Causes and Consequences……
Cont’d
•In addition, rapidly growing populations have young age
structures.
•Rapidly populations growth;.
The resulting low ratio of workers to dependents depresses
standards of living and more difficult to invest or expanding
economies because most of the people are not Economically
active.
The size of the formal labor force is also limited by the need for women to
remain at home to take care of large families.

124
Cont’d
 Environmental Pollution
• Life survives within the better environmental
conditions.
• Air, water gases and land, which are called life-
supporting layers are very essential for the existence
of life.
• All these given life-supporting layers are utterly
polluted
125
• Environmental Pollution…..Cont’d
• Water is not much useful for drinking and other

purposes in the cities because of high pollution.
• Similarly, air pollution has given birth to many

diseases.
• The upper layer of soil is burnt due to excessive use of
chemicals fertilizers. It was done for high yield of crops.
126
• Environmental Pollution….Cont’d
• Population explosion has led a way for worldwide
pollution, which is the major cause of contamination
of Earth's environment.
• Although some environmental pollution is a result of
natural causes such as volcanic eruptions, most is
caused by induced activities.
127
Cont’d
 Poverty, Malnutrition and Famine

• poverty and malnutrition is a growing and
common phenomenon in the underdeveloped
countries.
• High growth rate of population and comparatively
low production of crops has enhanced the situation of
poverty, malnutrition and famine in these countries.
128
• For instance,
 In Ethiopia, “Out of agriculturally productive lands
of the country, 14 million hectares rendered
unproductive (seriously eroded) and about 2 million
hectares of land have reached the point of no return.
129
 Conflicts and Wars
• rapid population growth in developing countries puts

a major strain on the resources it should be utilizing
for development.
• Conflicts over water are becoming a source of tension
between countries, which could result in wars.
130
• Conflicts and Wars…..
131
 Global Warming
• All the environmental problems are interpreting into

one platform, which are devastating for human
survival and which are caused by the human
induced activities.
132
• Global Warming
• The global warming, which is caused by emission of
toxic gases and enhancement of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere, is now being a global phenomenon.
• Due to global warming, the global average surface

temperature has increased over the 20th century by about
0.6 °C.
133
 Rise in Unemployment.
• When a country becomes overpopulated, it gives rise to

unemployment as there fewer jobs to support large
number of people.
• Rise in unemployment gives rise to crime as people
will steal various items to feed their family and provide
them basic amenities of life.
134
 High Cost of Living
• As difference between demand and supply continues

to expand due to overpopulation, it raises the prices
of various commodities including food, shelter and
healthcare.
• This means that people have to pay more to survive
and feed their families.
135
 Habitat degradation
136
2.2 World Population
Distribution
• Population distribution means the pattern of where
people live.
• In other word, it is the process which describes the
patterns in which people are spread out across the
earth’s surface.
137
World Population Distribution….. Cont’d
• It is know that only a smallest portion of the entire

earth’s land area is habitable, that is only 24% of the
earth’s land area or 7% of the total earth’s surface is
suitable for human settlement.
• Hence, this shows us that the earth population is not
uniformly distributed.
138
• At a global and even national scale, populations are
distributed unevenly.
• Large parts of the globe, including the
- North and South poles

- and deserts, are sparsely populated,
providing few options for their inhabitants in terms

of livelihood and survival and harsh living
conditions.
139
• Other areas, including agriculturally productive areas,

are densely populated.
• For example: - south eastern Asia,
- western Europe, along east and
- west coast of Latin America
- Africa and Eastern USA are areas of
heavy population concentration.
140
• The main reason for the concentration will be related

to the full filament of physical needs of human being
(availability of food, confort and other opportunities
for a livelihood).
• On the contrary hot deserts, humid rainforests,
tundra and ice caps, high mountains are areas that
are not suitable for human habitation.
141
142
• World People are not evenly distributed over the earth's

surface.
• This is due to both physical and human factors
• Physical factors such as relief, soils and climate can
encourage high densities of population.
• Densely populated areas are likely where there are areas
of low, flat land with fertile soils and a temperate
climate. 143
• However, where the climate is very hot, or very cold,

where there are high mountains or deserts, the
environment is hostile to people and these areas are
often only sparsely populated.
• Areas of high population density tend to be located
between 20° and 60°N. This area contains a large land
area and a relatively temperate climate.
144
Factors Affecting Population
Distribution
•Whether looking at the planet Earth, or at Africa or the United
States, it is clear that the population is far from being equally
distributed around the world.
•The number of people in a given area, and their distribution
within it, are the result of a complex interaction of factors.
145
Factors Affecting Population Distribution….Cont’d
• Factors influencing population distribution are:

I. The Physical Factors
II. Socio-political Factors
III. Economic Structure
146
Distribution…..Cont’d
1. The Physical Factors
• Relief:
• Steep gradients and rugged terrain restrict
movement and deter settlement.
• Lowland plains with gentle or flat relief, however,
encourage agriculture and high population.
147
Distribution…….Cont’d
• Altitude:
• There are few permanent settlements above 5000m
because the low temperatures and thinner atmosphere
restricts comfortable habitation.
• Consequently, 80 percent of the world's population
lives below 500m- with 56 percent between sea level
and 200m.
148
Factors Affecting Population Distribution…..Cont’d
• Climate and weather:
• Extremes of cold and aridity, such as found in hot and

cold desert, deter settlement.
• It is argued that temperate climates, such as in
Western Europe, provide ideal conditions,-yet as
stated earlier, half the world's population live in south-
East Asia which has a monsoon climate.
149
Factors Affecting Population Distribution……
Cont’d
• Soils:
• Thin, infertile or badly drained soils deter agriculture
and so settlement.
• Fertile deltaic and alluvial soils, by contrast,
encourage agriculture.
150
Cont’d
• Mineral and energy sources:

• Few or no resources deter settlement just as readily
available reserves encourage it.
• For example, the distribution of Western Europe's
population is closely associated with coalfields.
151
Cont’d
• Natural hazards:
• All logic dictates that hazardous areas would be avoided -
but this is not always the case.
• Paradoxes abound whereby fatalistic attitudes overcome fear
for sake of associated advantages.
• For example, the highly fertile volcanic areas of Java,
Indonesia and the flood plains of Bangladesh support some
of the densest rural population concentrations on earth.

152
Factors Affecting Population Distribution……Cont’d
2. Socio-political Factors: Culture, tradition, religion,

and politics:
• Culture, religion and politics supporting large
number of birth would increase the concentration of
population and otherwise the reverse is true.
153
Cont’d
• Socio-political Factors……Cont’d
• In addition, people having the same cultural practice or
religion most of the like to be together, the same role
may played by politics were political stability pulling
individuals from different parts to increase density.
154
Cont’d
3.Economic Structure:
• levels of industrialization, urbanization, and
technology are relevant in that generally the more
developed and sophisticated the economy, the more
people can be supported.
• Urban industrial areas by definition are densely
populated.
155
156
157
Measures of population
distribution
• Population Density is a measurement of the number
of people in an area
• It is an average number.
• Population density is calculated by dividing the
number of people by area
• Population density is usually shown as the number
of people per square kilometer.
158
Measures of population distribution....Cont’d
 Population density can be expressed in three
forms
I. Crude Density or Arithmetic Density
II. Physiological or Nutritional Density
III. Agricultural density or rural density
159
1.Crude Density or Arithmetic Density:

• Crude Density it is the number of persons per
square units of any geographical area.
• it is the number of persons per square units of any
• Crude density = Total population
Total areas
160
• QUEZ -1
• According to the 2007 population census the total
population of Ethiopia was 73,918,505 and the total
geographical area of the country is 1,106000km2, then
the crude density can be:
161
2. Physiological or Nutritional Density:

• This is the ratio of the total population to the arable
land of a country.
• Physiological density = Total population
Total Arable land
162
• This way of expressing population density provides insight

into the relationship between the size of population and
the availability of resources in a region.
• QUIZE 2
• The arable land area of Ethiopia is about 68% of the
country (1,106,000x 0.68 = 752080 km2) its physiological
density will be:
163
3.Agricultural density or rural density:

• It is the relationship between rural population and
cultivated land.
• Agricultural density is the best measure of
population and resource relationships in agricultural
countries.
• Agricultural density = rural population

cultivated land Area
164
• QUIZE 3
• As the 2007 population and housing census, the rural

population was 61,962,335 and if the cultivated land
area during the given year was 25 % of the total area
(1,106,000 x 0.25 = 276500 km2)
165
166
Measures of Population Dispersion and Concentration
 Dispersion and concentration of population

over the geographic area can be express by
1.Location quotient (LQ)

2. Lorenz curve
167
Measures of Population Dispersion and
Concentration….Cont’d
• Location quotient (LQ)

• LQ describe population concentration by ratio of percentage
of population to percentage of area.
• LQ = percentage of population÷ percentage of area if
• LQ > 1, indicates concentration of population
• LQ = 1, indicates even population distribution
• LQ < 1, indicates population dispersion
168
• Steps in LQ
 Calculate percentage of both population
and area
 Calculate LQ using the formula
 Interpret the result
169
Region Total Area (km2) % pop % area LQ Remark
pop(mill)
A 20 400000 20 40 0.5 Population
dispersion
B 30 300000 30 30 1 Even
distribution
C 40 200000 40 20 2 Concentrati
on of pop
D 10 100000 10 10 1 Even
distribution
170
• 2. Lorenz curve
• is a cumulative frequency curve showing the
distribution of a population against the geographical
area.
• It is important technique to show graphically the
extent to which a population is concentrated or
uniformly dispersed across a set of geographic areas.
171
• Lorenz curve….Cont’d
172
173
2.3 World Population Distribution
Category
• The surface of the earth by population
distribution can be categorized in to four: -
1.densely populated regions,
2. moderately populated regions,

3. sparsely populated regions and
4. non-settled regions.
174
World Population Distribution
Category….Cont’d
A .Densely Populated Regions.
• There are three main population ''belts'' of
high population density and concentration
which have 100 or more per square
kilometer (250 or more persons per square
mile).
• These are also called "Population clusters''
or ''Population nodes''. 175
• Densely Populated Regions…Cont’d

• These three belts account for well over two third of
the total world's population; namely;
1.Asiatic population belt
2. Peninsular Europe.
3. North - east America.
176
World Population Distribution Category….Cont’d

1. River Basins of Monsoon Asia.
• region accounts for more than half of the world's total

population.
• Most people are dependent for their livelihood on irrigated rice
cultivation.
• The major sub-regions of this cluster include:
– East Asia - Japan and China are the most populous in the sub-
region.
– South Asia - India, Pakistan and Bangladesh are dominantly
vital
177
•
Map of the world – to show the densely populated region
178
• These areas are rich with alluvial soils and abundant

rainfall.
• Therefore, they are able to attract and support huge

population in the world.
• In the whole cluster, Japan is the most developed

country with urban-based industrial economy.
179
• In the rest of the other countries,

agriculture is the basis of survival, although
industrialization is gaining ground also.
180
2. Europe:
• This continent supports more than 10% of the world's
total population.
• It has suitable climate and rich natural
resources which support dense population.
• There are also densely populated industrial areas which
are closely related to the distribution of minerals, such as
coal and iron. 181

• Europe….Cont’d
• It is the most developed cluster both in

economic and demographic terms globally.
182
3.North East America:
• This part of North America (mainly USA) is
highly urbanized and industrialized.
• The growing urban, industrial and mining
economy is the main cause of the
presence of huge population in the area.
183

• North East America…….Cont’d
• It accounts for about 5% f tohe world's total
population
• So far we have considered areas where population
densities are high. These areas are located in
parts of the world where geographical
conditions favor intensive cultivation or the
development of modern industries or both.
184
185
World Population Distribution Category….Cont’d
B. Moderately Populated Regions

• The moderately settled areas include the
geographical areas those experienced population
densities 25 to 100 per square kilometer (60 to 250
persons per square mile).
• These moderately populated regions of the world
include:
1.Tropical and Temperate Savanna:
2.The Tropical and Temperate Coastlands: 186

• Moderately Populated Regions….Cont’d
1.Tropical and Temperate Savanna:

• The savanna grasslands of the tropical and
temperate regions experienced shortage of
rainfall and hence, the economic activity
practiced in these areas could not support
large density of population.
187
• Moderately Populated Regions….Cont’d
2.The Tropical and Temperate Coastlands:
• The tropical coastlands are settled more

recently in the 19th century and have moderate
density compared with the hinterlands.
• The temperate coastlands have also moderate

settlements than the more fertile hinterlands.
188
C. Sparsely (Thinly Settled) Populated
Regions
• The sparsely populate areas are inhabited by 1to 25
per square kilometer (2 to 60 persons per square
mile) of thin population cover.
• These areas includes: Tundra, Hot-dry lands, Hot-
wet lands, High relief, Areas with poor soil,
189
190
• Sparsely (Thinly Settled) Populated
Regions…..Cont’d
1.Tundra:
• includes lowland areas bordering the Arctic Ocean
in North America and Eurasia.
• Cultivation in these areas is totally impossible due
to the very short growing period.
• These areas support only very few nomadic people.
191
• Sparsely (Thinly Settled) Populated Regions…..Cont’d
2. Hot-dry lands:
• include many of the tropical desert lands.
• These lands do not have permanent
population settlement.
• Shortage of water and high temperature
forbid permanent settlement.
192
• Hot-dry lands…...Cont’d
• However, due to the start of mining, there
are considerable settlements located right
in the heart of hot deserts,
e.g. The Sahara desert.
193
3. Hot-wet lands:
• Include the Amazon basin, Congo basin and the
East Indies.
• These areas are characterized by high humidity,
rainfall and temperature.
• Because of the unfavourable climate, there are
few people living in these areas.
194
4. High relief:
• consists of mountainous areas with high

altitude, rugged surface and cold,
temperature.
• These areas do not encourage large

settlement.
195
5. Areas with poor soil:
• include very large areas in the world which are
covered with infertile soil.
• Such areas are sparsely populated.
196
D. Unpopulated Areas
• These areas include the geographical areas with
less than 1person per square kilometer or fewer
than 2 people per square mile.
• These are like Antarctica continent which has no
settlement at all and areas with extreme unfavorable
conditions for human life.
197
198
Chapter Three:
• Components of
Population Change
199
• In the previous chapter, we have seen that population
has been changing from time to time and region to
region.
• This change in population is directly linked with
determinants of population dynamics or components
of population change.
• As tried to discuss there, world population showed
alarming growth or abrupt change in number mostly
as a result of natural increase, hence,.
200
• birth and death are the two important
determinants of world population
• When it comes to regional or country population
change birth, death and migration have great
contribution on the dynamics or variation of
population.
• The role of migration on world population change
is none.
201
Migration
• Therefore, there are three determinants of population
change/number.
• Birth + Population number Death
+
Migration
202
• This chapter basically focuses on the processes which
add members to populations and which subtract
members.
• The key population processes are therefore, fertility
which adds babies, mortality which subtracts
population and migration which adds and subtracts
people mainly in the young adult ages.
203
3.1. Pattern, Measures and Determinants of Fertility
• Fertility : refers to the actual reproductive

performance of a population or the ability of a
society to reproduce itself.
• It is a function of a woman's fecundity (the

physiological ability to conceive and bear children).
• There are three intermediate variables that determine

the fertility of women; these include sexual
Pattern, Measures and Determinants of
Fertility….Cont’d
• There are diverse factors that affect fertility rate,

and many of these most largely influencing the three
intermediate variables.
205

Pattern, Measures and Determinants of Fertility….Cont’d.
------The dominant factors of fertility are presented below:
 A. Age at marriage
 B. The status of
 E. Sterility
women  F. Socio-cultural and
I. Education economic factors
II. Employment
 G. Sex preferences
 C. Use of contraceptive
methods
 D. Abortion
206
• A. Age at marriage:
• The age at which a person is married has a direct
relation to the number of children expected to be
born.
• In all societies, marriage has clearly been an
institution that has promoted fertility.
207
• A. Age at marriage…..Cont’d
• The longer a woman waits to enter a sexual union,
the lower the fertility rate.
• Conversely, where women marry at a young age,
fertility rates tend to be higher due to the increased
exposure to risk of pregnancy and longer periods
over which pregnancy could occur.
208
• A. Age at marriage…..Cont’d
• With early marriage, the reproductive age is longer

and hence more children, but the contrary in the case
of late marriage.
209
• B. The status of women:
• it is a key determinant of fertility.
• Through improving women's status, reductions in fertility

could be achieved more rapidly.
• Women's status can be improved by giving them better

opportunities for education, employment, decision
making, health and nutrition, marriage and divorce
practices, etc.
210
Group discussion
• How do education and employment affect women's

fertility ?
211
• I. Education: there is a negative relationship between

education and fertility, i.e. education exposes women
to new ideas.
• The new ideas help them to have access to

information.
• The information they acquire enlightens them to limit

family size, rise marriage age, use contraceptives, and
promote the role of women in decision making. 212
• II. Employment:
• Increasing the participation of women in the labor
force will reduce fertility and promote socio-
economic development.
213
• Female labor participation will reduce fertility because

of the following reasons:
 Women entering the labor force will have less time
for child care.
 They will have access to information, such as
smaller family size and delayed marriage.
214
C. Use of contraceptive methods
• Contraceptive use is the key determinants of fertility
in most developed countries.
• Increased access to methods of birth control and the
desire to limit family size helped fertility reductions
• Despite the reproductive revolution, contraceptive
use varies dramatically over space and echoes
variations in fertility levels.
215
• D. Abortion:
• artificial abortion is the common practice in

developed countries 1st and now a day largely on the
practice in developing countries including Ethiopia.
• It is most commonly used by unmarried group of

people so as to control unwanted birth.
216
• E. Sterility:
• inability to produce birth which may be caused by
natural or man-made factors and
• sterilization has its contribution to increase or
decrease the number of births.
217
• F. Socio-cultural and economic factors:

• these include social tradition, religion, ethnicity,
family structure etc.
• The effects of socio-cultural factors vary greatly across
population.
• Cultural values and practices
• relating to sexual activity, childbearing outside of
marriage or union, and contraceptive use will have an
impact upon fertility decisions.
218
• Socio-cultural and economic factors:….Cont’d
• Child Value; in majority of the history less developed

countries consider having large number of children as
an asset and would help them in old age providing the
pension.
• Religions have influences on fertility either by supporting
family planning or prohibiting it by considering such
activities as sin.
219
Pattern, Measures and Determinants of Fertility….Cont’d
• Socio-cultural and economic factors:….Cont’d

• Forms of sexuality or marriage:
• it is now officially advocated by developed countries that the

two couples with same sex (male and male; female and
female) can sign marriage engagement.
• Thus, decline in fertility is vivid expect artificial method of

child conceiving is used.
220
Socio-cultural and economic factors:

….Cont’d
Level of development and fertility has strong
relationship. For example, in most developed
countries, fertility is fairly small whereas, in the
developing countries it is very high or constantly
increasing.
221
• G. Sex preferences:
• sex of children contributes to differences in fertility
behavior.
• For example, couples may prefer a male child, but they

may still have female children. This situation forces the
couples to reproduce more and more children until they
get the preferred sex.
222
• In general worldwide variations in fertility rates are
observed,
• with some of the highest rates observed in sub-
Saharan Africa and some of the lowest rates in
Eastern Europe, where several countries are faced
with population decline.
223
224
Fertility Measures
• There are two main approaches in fertility

analysis.
 Micro Fertility Analysis:
 Macro-level Approach,
225
Fertility Measures
 Micro Fertility Analysis:
• the demographic study of the fertility of individual women
and men.
 examining the number of births a woman (or man) has
produced by a given point in time
 examining the number of births a woman (or man) has
had by the end of the childbearing years
 focusing on the timing and spacing of births at various

stages of the life cycle (say, between the ages of 25 and
29, or between 45 and 49) 226
Fertility Measures
 Macro-level Approach,
• that is, to determine the rate at which births occur in
a population or sub-population during a given period
of time. Rather than studying the fertility of persons
• macro fertility analysis studies the fertility of

populations.
227
Fertility Measures
• The following are the most common measures of
fertility:
1. Crude Birth Rate (CBR)
2. General Fertility Rate (GFR)
3. Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR)
4. Total Fertility Rate (TFR
5. Gross Reproduction Rate (GRR)
6. Net Reproduction Rate (NRR):
7 Child-Woman Ratio: (CWR) 228
Fertility Measures
1.Crude Birth Rate (CBR)
 it indicates the number of live births occurring in a
given time period, usually a year,
 divided by the population of the area as estimated at
the middle of the particular time
• CBR = No of live birth  1000
Mid year population
229
Fertility Measures
Crude Birth Rate (CBR)….cont’d
• CBR is a crude measure because its denominator
consists of all persons in the population of both
sexes and old ages, many of whom do not contribute
towards fertility or births.
230
Fertility Measures
• Crude Birth Rate (CBR)….cont’d

• Example: If the number of births in Arba Minch town
was 1,271 and the Mid-year population was 45,508 in
2005.
• What was the crude birth rate of the town in the given
year?
• Solution CBR = B  1.000 1.271  1.000 29.9
P 45.508
Means that 27.9 birth 1.000 of inhabitants
231
Fertility Measures
2. General Fertility Rate (GFR)

• it is the number of live births per 1000 women aged
15-49 years in a given.
• Generally, the period of child bearing is taken from
age 15 to 49 although there are women who bear
children before the age of 15 or after the age of 49.
232
General Fertility Rate (GFR)….Cont’d
• Example:
• GFR = Number of live births  1.000
Number of women age
• The number of female population from age 15 to 49 is
25% of the total population of country “x” which is
20,400,000, in the same year 820,000 children were
born, and then the general fertility rate would be:
233
General Fertility Rate (GFR)….Cont’d
• Given= 25% female population
20.400.000 Total population
820.000 number of children born
25  20.400.000 = 5,100,100
100
GFR= 820,000  1.000 161
5,100,000
. Means 161 birth per 1.000 of women of reproductive
age 15-49
234
Fertility Measures
3. Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR)

• It is a number of live births per1000 women of specific
age group.
• ASFR= Number of live birth in spesific age group 
1000
Number of women in the same age group at mid year
235
Fertility Measures
4. Total Fertility Rate (TFR):

• Is the number of children a woman would have
during her reproductive life if she experienced the
prevailing rates of fertility at each age.
• High-fertility countries may have birth rates of 40 or
even 50 per 1,000 populations (per year);
• corresponding levels of the TFR would be 5 to 7
children per woman.
236
Fertility Measures
• Total Fertility Rate (TFR)…..Cont’d
• Low-fertility countries have birth rates of 15 to 20 per
1,000 and TFRs of about 2. “Replacement level”
fertility.
• In any case the TFR is a good expression of the
fertility rate and it could help to compare the fertility
rate of one country with the other.
237
Fertility Measures
• Total Fertility Rate (TFR)…..Cont’d
• NB. TFR varies from region to region, being high in
developing world and low in developed ones and has
been decreasing from time to time since 1970s.
238
Fertility Measures
• 5. Gross Reproduction Rate (GRR):

• is the average number of daughters that would be born
to a woman (or group of woman) during her life time if
she passed through her childbearing years confirming
to the age specific fertility rates of a given year.
• GRR= TFR Female birth  1.000

Total population
239
• Fertility Measures
6. Net Reproduction Rate (NRR):

• NRR is similar to the GRR, but it is always lower
than the GRR because it considers the fact that
some women will die before completing their
childbearing years. NB
240
Fertility Measures
7. Child-Woman Ratio:
• is the number of children under 5 years of age
per 1,000 women of childbearing age in a
given year.
• CWR= Number of children under five  1.000
Number of women age 15-49
241
Fertility Measures
Child-Woman Ratio….Cont’d
Example:
• In 1993, Addis Ababa had 426,150 children under four
that were born to 444,000 women aged 15-49. The child-
woman ratio for Addis in 1993 can be calculated as
follows:
• Child women ratio = 426,150  1000 =873.3
444,00
There were 873 children under five years per 1,000 women of
childbearing age in Addis Ababa in 1993. 242
243
3.2 Concept and Measures of
Mortality
• Mortality is the occurrence of death in a
defined population. It is the exact opposite
of fertility.
• The presence of constantly high fertility and
declining mortality has resulted in rapid
rate of natural increase
244
Concept and Measures of Mortality….Cont’d
• As a matter of fact, mortality marking the other extreme

(end) of life is a significant demographic factor of a
defined population.
• population explosion is a hazardous condition which

adversely affects the normal demographic and socio-
economic development process at different level.
245
Measures of Mortality:
• mortality is a measurable concept.

• Mortality rates, though decreasing, are now higher in the
developing countries than the developed ones.
1. Crude Death Rate (CDR):
2. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR):

3.Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)
4. Age specific death rate
5. Sex Specific Death Rates (SSDR
6. Cause- Specific Death Rate: 246
Measures of Mortality….Cont’d
1. Crude Death Rate (CDR)
• is an easily understood and interpreted
method for quantifying mortality.
• It is the number of deaths in a population in a given
year per one thousand members of the population.
• The CDR is referred to as crude because its
denominator comprised of the entire population
247
• Crude Death Rate (CDR)…..Cont’d
• This is because the risk of death varies by age, sex,
socioeconomic status, and many other characteristics.
• Thus, although it is true that all persons in the
denominator of the CDR will eventually experience
death, they are not all equally exposed to the risk of
death. 248
• CDR is Expressed as
CDR = Number of death in the year  1.000
Mid year population
Example:
.By 2004 US CSA report indicated 2,398,343 deaths
from a total population of 293,028,000.
249
• Solution
• Given 2,389,343 Death
• 293,028,000 Total population
CDR= 2,398,34351  1.000 =8.2
293,028,000
 This Means that in the united state in 2004 there
were over 8 deaths from 1.000 person
250
2, Infant Mortality Rate (IMR):
• the most common measure of infant death;
• is the number of deaths in a year to persons
under age 1 per 1,000 babies born in the year
• or the probability of death in the first year of life,
usually stated as a number per 1,000 births.
251
• Infant Mortality Rate…..cont’d
• Like fertility as well as other mortality measures, IMR

varies from time to time and region to region.
• Many less-developed countries have infant mortality rates

above 100 per 1,000—that is, more than 10 percent of the
children die in their first year.
• In countries relatively few children die in the richer

countries with effective health and educational systems,
infant mortality rates are about 15 per 1,000, or even lower.
252
• The formula of expressing IMR is
IMR= Number of deaths below the age of 1 year 
1.000
Number of live births in the year
For example,
• a hypothetical country experienced death of 2000 babies

before celebrating their first birth day. What would be
IMR if total number of birth at the same year is 100,000?
253
• Solution
• Given 200 death
• 100.000
IMR = 2000  1000 2 per 1000
100.000
 Infant mortality rate sometime can measured with
specific longevity of babies as:
 Neonatal Mortality Rate (NNMR)
 Post-Neonatal Mortality Rate (PNNMR)
254
Infant Mortality Rate…..cont’d
A. Neonatal Mortality Rate (NNMR)
• Neonatal period is the first month of age of an infant.
• Neonatal mortality (death) is the death of infants
under one month (<4 weeks), per 1000 live births.
• NNMR= Number of deaths from 1 to 28 days  1.000
Total live births in the year
255
 Causes of Neonatal mortality

 Maternal factors during pregnancy
 Birth injuries and neonatal infection, etc.
 Problem of access to health centres and
 Skills of midwifery
256
Infant Mortality Rate…..cont’d

B. Post-Neonatal Mortality Rate (PNNMR)
• The past neonatal age is the period of time between one
month up to one year.
• Post – Neonatal mortality (death) is deaths of infants
one month (four weeks) of age up to one year (1 – 12
months age of) per 1000 live births.
257
• NNMR = Number of death from 1 to 28 days  1.000
Total live births in the year
 Causes of post neonatal mortality:
• Environmental sanitation
• Infections (communicable diseases)
• Nutritional problems
• Child care etc
258
• Infant mortality rate can be regarded as a good indicator

of level of development.
• In countries with better living conditions like Europe,

mortality is highly reduced.
• Whereas, in the less developed countries, e.g. Most

African countries, there is quite a high infant mortality
due to malnutrition, various diseases and poor
environment. 259
3. Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)

• indicate the extent to which mothers die immediately
before, during, or after giving birth because of a problem or
problems associated with the pregnancy or childbirth.
• MMR=No deaths of mothers due to puerperal causes 1.000
Number of live births in the year.
260
• Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)
• Example: In 1983 in the U.S. out of a total of 3,614,000

live births there were about 290 maternal deaths.
• Given 290 death
• 3,614,000 birth
• MMR= 290  1.000=8
3,64,000
8.0, there were 8 maternal deaths per 1000 live births in

U.S. 261
4. Age specific death rate
• it tells us the number of deaths of a specific age.
It can be calculated as
• ASDR= Death with a specific age group  1.000
Total population of the same group
Example:
• If the number of death within the age group of 30-34 is
500 and the total population of that age group is
31,000. What is the age specific death rate of the age
group of this population?
262
• Age specific death rate
Example:
• If the number of death within the age group of 30-34 is 500
and the total population of that age group is 31,000. What is
the age specific death rate of the age group of this
population?
• ASDR= 500  1.000 = 16.12
31,000
 There are about 16 deaths per 1000 of the age group of 31-
35 of a population of that country. 263

5. Sex Specific Death Rates (SSDR)

• is the number of deaths among a specific sex group
(males or females) per 1000 population of the same
sex group.
• Sex specific mortality rate is used to determine which
sex group is at higher risk of death than the other.
• SSD = Death of a given sex  1.000
Total number of the same sex
264
• Sex Specific Death Rates (SSDR)…..Cont’d
• For example, Out of the 40 million populations in a
given country 40% are male what will be SSDR of the
country if 120000 and 80000 males and females
respectively had passed away?
• SSDRM= 120000 1.000 =7.5 per 1.000
16000000
• SSDRF= 80000  1.000 3.3 per 1.000
24000000
265
6. Cause- Specific Death Rate
• basic cause specific death rates are usually expressed
in deaths per 100,000.
• This is because for most cause of deaths the rates of
occurrence are low.
• CSD= Death by specific cause  1000
Total population
266
• 7. Life expectancy:
• also called as span of life or longevity of life.
• is the average number of years that the newly born
child is expected to live.
• The level of life expectancy is positively related to
development stages, thus people of MDCs have higher
life expectancy (about 76 years) than the LDCs (about
62 years).
267
• Life expectancy…..Cont’d
• At best, the pattern of mortality at global level is very
varied with the stage of development of regions or
countries.
• Accordingly, developed regions and countries have
very low mortality than developing regions or
countries.
268
• Life expectancy…..Cont’d
This is mainly due to causative factors such as
- peace and war,
- difference in social classes,
- standard of living,
- type of occupation and marital status.
269
270
3.2Migration; Nature, Rules and Measures
• Migration is a form of geographical mobility or spatial

mobility between one geographical unit and another,
generally involving a permanent change in residence
from the place of origin (departure) to the place of
destination.
• It is considered as a socio-cultural phenomenon which
affects all facets of human life at different scale.
271
Migration; Nature, Rules and Measures …Cont’d
 Some of the important indicators of this

influence are:-
It is a determinant of population change (a non-
biological determinant of population size).
It plays a vital role in the distribution of human
population.
272
Migration; Nature, Rules and Measures …Cont’d
…..Some of the important indicators of this

influence are:-cont’d
 It may be considered as a symptom of basic social
change by way of analyzing the pull factors of the area
of destination and push factor in the area of origin.
 It can be considered as means of cultural diffusion &

social interaction etc.
273
Types of Migration
• Demographers use different bases (criteria) to
classify migratory movements of people into
different groups.
• Thus, there are various types of migration. But, the
most important basis of classification is 'area' or
'space', time, economic reasons, distance, causes
and motivation.
274
Types of Migration…..Cont’d
• Based on this method, it is possible to identify the following
major types of migration.
 Based on 'distance'
 Long distance migration
 Short distance migration
 Based on 'duration'
 Permanent migration: the migration involves a permanent

change in residence
 Temporary migration:
275
Based on direction
A. In-migration
• refers to the residential migration of persons to an area of

destination; the area of destination is the area or community where
the migration ended.
B. Out-migration
• refers to the migration of persons from an area of origin. The area

of origin is the area or community where the migration began, and.
276
• Based on direction….Cont’d
C. Return migration
• is the migration of persons back to their area of
origin at some time after their initial out-migration.
• 'Area' (space) criterion classification is most
widely known and its demographic effect is very
significant.
277
 Based on 'Area' (space) criterion
A. International migration:
• it refers to the kind of movement across the international
boundary.
• It may be inter-continental or inter a-continental, in forms.
• This could be either between continents (e.g. between
Africa and Europe) or within the same continent (e.g.
between Ethiopia and Kenya, etc).
278
• Based on 'Area' (space) criterion….Cont’d
B. Internal migration or domestic migration:
• it takes place within the territorial limit of a
country.
• e.g. The movement of people from Northern Ethiopia
to Central and Southern Ethiopia and vice versa.
• Based on the direction of movement, internal
migration has various forms.
279
• Internal migration or domestic migration…Cont’d
• Hence, based on 'direction' of movement, internal
migration can be divided in to four sub-categories. These
are:-
1. Rural - urban migration
2. Rural - rural migration
3. Urban - urban migration
4. . Urban - rural migration
280
 It is well known that, rural – urban migration is the
very manifestation of developing economy and it has its
own unique effect both in the country side and in the city.
 some of the effects in the country side, include
- Decrease in working labor force,

- decrease in agricultural production,
- feminization of the rural population and
negative impacts on children's education are
281
• On the other hand
- rapid city population increases,

- shortage of houses and other resources, dull
social life,
- sever pollution and increase in juvenile
delinquency are some of the problems that can be
associated with mass movement of rural people to the
cities. 282
• The rural - urban and rural-rural migrations are the

main feature of more developing regions,
• whereas, the inter-urban migration is the

characteristic feature of more developed regions.
283
284
Factors (Causes ) for Migration
• migration is the outcome of two sets of forces (push and pull
factors).
• Push forces work in the migrant’s home area while pull forces are
those which attract the migrant to a particular destination.
• These two set of factors are related with the
• physical,
• economic,
• and political conditions of areas of origin as well as
destination 285
Factors (Causes ) for Migration…..Cont’d
Conditions Factors of Migration

Push Pull
Physical Inaccessibility Scenic quality

Harsh climate Fertile soils
Natural disaster Lack of natural hazards
Economic: Unemployment Good wages

Poverty Promotion (fair taxation)
High rents Resource availability
Heavy taxes Low living costs
High living costs
286
Factors (Causes ) for Migration…..Cont’d
Push and pull factors of migration
Conditions Factors of Migration….Cont’d

Push Pull
Social Discrimination Good welfare services

Lack of housing Relatives and friends
Bereavement Marriage
Political Civic unrest Freedom of speech
Persecution Propaganda
Planning decision Political asylum
287
Laws of Migration
• different writers tried to set out some laws of migration.
Here under, we will see some of them.
I. Raven Stein’s Laws of migration
- Raven stein came up with his "laws" of migration in the
1880s based on studies carried out in the UK. The laws
are as follows
 The greatest body of migrants travel short distances.
 This produces currents directed towards great
commercial centers.
288
Laws of Migration…..Cont’d
• I. Raven Stein’s Laws of migration ….Cont’d
 Each current has a compensating counter-current in
the opposite direction.
 Both currents display similar characteristics
 Long distance movements are directed towards great
commercial centers.
 People in urban areas migrate less than people in
areas.
289
Laws of Migration
I. Raven Stein’s Laws of migration ….Cont’d
 Males migrate more over long distances and females
migrate more over short distances.
 Most migrants are between 20-34 years of age.
 People mainly move for economic reasons.
 Urban housing development is inadequate for the

influx of migrants, so, ghettoes/shanties is formed
290
Laws of Migration
II. Zipf's Inverse Distance Law
 The volume of migrants decreases with distance from
the origin.
III. Stouffer's Law of Intervening Distances
 the number of migrant moving from one town (X) to
another (Y) is directly related to the opportunities
available at Y but inversely proportional to the number
of intervening opportunities between X and Y.
291
292
Measures of Migration
• - just like the other two components of population
change, migration is also a measurable concept.
• The most common measures of migration are given
below:
A. Immigration rate
B. Emigration rate
C. Net Migration Rate (NMR):
293
Measures of Migration….Cont’d
A . Immigration rate
• it is the number of people arriving at a destination per
1000 population at that destination in a given year.
• Immigration rate = Number of immigrants  1.000

Total population at destination
294
b. Emigration rate
• it is the number of emigrants departing an area of
origin per 1000 population of the area of origin in a
given year.
• Emigration = Number of Emigrants  1.000
Total population of Origin
295
C Net Migration Rate (NMR)
• shows the net effect of immigration and emigration on
an area's population,
• expressed as an increase or decrease per 1000
population of the area in a given year.
• NMR = Number of Immigrant – Number of emigrants  1.000
Total population
296
297
Consequence of Migration
• It has widely been recognized that migration affects, the area
of out migration (origin), immigration (destination) and the
migrants themselves in different dimensions.
1. Demographic Consequence
• Changes in the numbers and distribution of people

with in a region are changed.
• Age, sex, literacy rate experience are also significant
numerical change.
• Creation of ghettoes (cohrt) in urban areas 298
Consequence of Migration….Cont’d
2. Social Consequences
• Increases animosity(hostility) between people of different
culture.
• Migration brings different people together leading to conflict
• Rural-urban migration creates ghettoes(the place were poor
people live ) in cities
299
Consequence of Migration….Cont’d
3. Economic Consequences
• This depends on the 'quality" of the migrants and the
economic needs of the origin and the destination quality
refers to skills, age, educational attainment, health etc.
• In over populated areas, emigration is beneficial b/ce it

reduces the pressure on the land while in under populated
areas, emigration may slow down development.
300
3.4 Population Growth Rate,
Doubling Time and Projections
• In the foregoing section, we have covered the
patterns and trends of world population growth. We
know that population change is positive or negative
change in the number of inhabitants of a given place
during a period of time.
• Thus, population growth is a combined outcome of
fertility, mortality and migration.
301
Population Growth Rate, Doubling Time and
Projections …… Cont’d
1. Measures of population growth: -

• population growth refers to positive or negative change
in the number of inhabitants of a given place during a
period of time.
• It is a measurable concept, and growth rate is widely
used method.
• Thus, growth rate is the combined effect of natural
increase and net migration rate.
302
• Measures of population growth……Cont’d
• Growth rate can be calculated as:
• GR= CBR – CDR ± NMR where, GR = Growth

rate,
- CBR = Crude birth rate,

- CDR = crude death rate and
- NMR = net migration rate.
303
• Measures of population growth……Cont’d
• Natural increase is the difference between the crude

birth and crude death rates during a year; rate of natural
increase does not take into account sex and age structure of
a population, as a result, it is sometimes said to be an
imperfect approximation of growth rate.
• It is calculated as: RNI = CBR - CDR where,

RNI = rate of natural increase
304
(1) Growth rate - is determined through using

birth, death and migration rates.
• There are different methods to measure population
growth.
a) Component Method
b) Arithmetic Method
(c) Geometric Method
305
• Growth rate ….. Cont’d
• A) Component Method-
• in this method the component of population change
are considered and expresses as follow.
R= (B-D) + (I- E) of  100
Total population
• where,
r = growth rate, B = crude birth rate, D = crude
death rate, I = immigration rate and E= emigration
306
• Component Method….Cont’d
• Example : In 1980 – Hypothetical country “X” has
crude birth rate of 46 and crude death rate 19 . In the
same period, net migration rate was 0.4%, then
calculate population growth rate for the hypothetical
country in the specified years.
307
• Component Method….Cont’d
Solution Given Crude birth rate 46
Crude death rate 19
net migration 0.4
• GR = CBR - CDR ± NMR =
 46% - 19% + 0.4% = 4.6 - 1.9 + 0.4

= 2.7 + 0.4 = 3.1 %
308
B) Arithmetic Method
• is the other method of measuring population growth, when
data is available for first and last census.
• Thus, r = p2- p1  100
np1
• Where, r = rate of population increase in percent,
• p1 = population at the first census,
• P2 = population at the recent census,
• n = time gap between two census.
309
(c) Geometric Method.

• is frequently used method of computing rate of population
increase.
• the important point is during data collection geographic
area covered in both counts has to be identical, thus,
• it is given by the formula. r = x 100 [ t p1 - 1] 1OO
• P0
310
• Where,
• r = annual rate of increase in percent;
• P0 = population at beginning,
• P1 = population at the end and
• t = time.
311
312
2- Population Estimates/Projection
• one can estimate the population size of a given
country between two censuses, after census and
prior to the census if certain population size is
known.
(A) - Inter – censual Estimates: this is a method which
is used to estimate a population between two census
year. 313
• It can be calculated as:
• Pt =Po + ( Pn - Po) t
n
Where
Pt = Population in question at time,
Po = Beginning population
Pn = Population at later census,
t = time interval between Po and Pn
n = time elapsed between two census period. 314

• Example : The population of country “x” was 60

million in 1960 and it reached to 66 million in 1970,
then estimate the 1964 population of the hypothetical
country.
• Pt =Po + ( Pn - Po) t
n
315
• Given - Population …………. 1960…..….60 Million
Population……………1970………66Million
Estimate population of 1964……… ?
• Pt =Po + ( Pn - Po) t
n
 Pt =60 +(66-60) 4 = 60+(6) 4 60+0.6 =60 + 2.4
10 6
• Thus, the population of 1964 is 62,4000,000
(60,000,000 + 2,400,000).
316
• (B) Post censual estimates:
 it is a method in which we estimate population size after

census.
 There are various techniques that are important to determine

population size after census
1/ Component method: - It is based on birth, death &

migration data.
317
• Post censual estimates:…….Cont’d
Pn = Po + B - D + I - E
• Where,
• Pn = Population size to be known,
• Po = Population at the beginning,
• I = immigrants
• B = number of births,
• D = number of deaths and
• E= number of emigrants.
318
• Post censual estimates:…….Cont’d

• Example: Assume that country “A” has a population of
20 million in 1980 and births and deaths of 600,000 and
200,000 respectively. The total number of immigrants in
the same period was 100,000 and that of emigrant was
60,000, then estimate the 1981 population of country
“A” using component method
319
• Solution:
• Given Pn 20.million 1980
• Birth 600,000 Death 200,000 Immigrant 100,000 Emigrant
60,000
• Pn = P o + B – D + I – E
= 2,000,000 + 600,000 – 200,000 + 100,000 – 60,000.
= 2600,000 - 200,000 + 40,000
= 2400,000 + 40,000
= 2,440,000
 The total number of population of a country X in 1981 is 2,440,000
320
• 2/ Geometric Method: this method is the most widely used
ones and it assumes as population continues to grow at a
constant percentage “r” each year.

• Pn = Po (1 + r) t
• Where,
• Pn = population size to be estimated,
• Po = initial population,
• r = rate of population growth and
• t = time
321
C- Pre – Censal Estimates
• This method estimates population prior to census if the current
population size is known. This can be calculated as: Log
arthmic Method
P1 = P2
( 1+r) t
• Where P1= initial population p2= The later population

r= growth rate t= time
322
• Pre –Censal Estimates …..Cont’d
• Example: The population of Ethiopia was 56 million
in 1980. Assume that annual growth rate is 3%, what
was the population of Ethiopia in 1970.
• Given - population of Ethiopia 56 million
- Annual growth rate 3%
- what was the population size of Ethiopia 1970 ?
323
• Solution : P1 = P2
( 1+r) t
= 56, 000, 000
(1+3 ) 10
100
= 56,000,000
1+ 0.03 ) 10
= 56,000,000
(1.03)10
= 56,000,000 = 41.666,767
1.3439
324
325
3- Population Projection and Doubling Time.
• The prediction of population size based on the

present rates of fertility, mortality, and migration
and with the present age- sex structure is called
population projection.
• Doubling time – is a period or time taken for a
population to double itself.
• Hence, the time taken is expressed in years.
326
Population Projection and Doubling Time.
• Doubling time….Cont’d
• According to the current growth ( 1.3%) today’s world

population is projected to double in a period of 54 years
from the year 2002.
• Thus, doubling duration is expressed as:
• DD = 70
GR
where,
• DD = doubling duration,
• GR = growth rate and
• 70 = the constant.
327
Population Projection and Doubling Time
• Example: The population of the world in 2002 was 6.23 billion.

The rate of population growth in the same year was 1.3%. If this
rate is continues for the future calculate the doubling duration.
• Solution
• DD = 70 53,846
1.3
 53,846 year this tell us that if the world population
continues to grow with 1.3 per year it will double after
54 year.
328
Population Projection and Doubling Time
• Doubling time in developing countries is shorter (due

to high population growth rate) than that of the
developed countries which are characterized by low
rate of population increase.
329
330
Chapter Four
• Population Composition
331
Population Composition
• “Population composition” refers to the

characteristics of a particular group of people.
• It encompass a wide varieties of elements
like - age
- sex composition,
- marital status,
- socio-economic composition etc,

332
Population Composition ……. Cont’d
among the various elements of population
composition sex, age and economic composition are
commonly used by population analysts
The age and the sex structure of the population as
the most important demographic characteristics and
income as an important economic attributes are
captured by a census of a population.
333
4.1 Age and Sex Structure
• Why we study age-sex structure/composition?

Because sex and age structure significantly affect:
• Birth and death rates - GDP
• Migration tendency - Man power
• Marital status - Planning for
social services, etc.
334
4.1.1) Age Composition
• It is important to measure potentials of (school, voting, and
workforce population), and also for the study of mortality, fertility,
dependency ratio etc.
• That are imperative for socio-economic planning and future
population projections etc.
• The proportions of children and older persons have much to do
with the balance of national expenditures. on schools, childcare,
immunization and reproductive health, on old-age social security
systems public pension.
335
Age Composition
• There are three methods of analyzing age
composition.
• age groups,
• the age pyramids (population pyramid)
• and the age indices.
336
Age Composition
1. Age groups
• A population’s age structure has a great deal to do with

how that population lives.
• - classifying population into different age-groups
• it allows regional comparison with the help of
choropleth maps.
• Population is classified into three broad age groups as
indicated below:
337
Age Composition
Population is classified into three broad age groups
as indicated below
Age groups Type of population
Under 15 young(economically inefficient
group)
15-64 adult (economic active people
or group)
65 and over old (economically inefficient
people or group)
338
Age Composition
• Each of these three age groups vary in proportion across

countries and regions, this is due to the variation in
socio-economic and demographic developments of
different societies
• The concentration of young age population is directly

related to fertility patterns of the country,
• Thus, there is high young population in LDCs than MDCs.
339
Age Composition
• Working age group
• is economically as well as biologically productive and

demographically the most mobile.
• This group of population carries the burden of feeding,

clothing and educating other two groups of population.
• The more developed region have high proportion of adult

age group than that of the less developed ones. 16-35
young adult 35-64 old adult.
340
Age Composition
• Old age groups
• are economically inefficient and don’t contribute to
fertility specifically women.
• The number of females in this age group is more than

that of males because in most countries of the world,
male mortality is higher than that of female
341
Age Composition
• Old age groups……Cont’d
• the number of female population is larger than
male population at global scale.
• The more developed regions/countries show much
higher proportions of older persons than the less
developed regions/countries.
342
Age Composition
2). Population- pyramid
• Population pyramid generally is a graphic method to show
the age and sex composition of a population.
• It is the representation of age and sex of a population
along a horizontal bar and vertical axis, age groups
presents at a regular interval, usually 5 years
• The horizontal axis of the pyramid represents the
population of females or males separately while the
vertical axis shows the age groups.
343
Age Composition
Population- pyramid …Cont’d
• The shape of a pyramid varies from country to country

depending upon economic development of a country.
• In addition, from the population pyramid one can determine
whether the population is growing, stagnant or to decline.
• The population of less developing countries is characterized
by high birth rate and relatively high death rate, thus, their
pyramid have very broad base and steeply sloping sides
344
Age Composition
• Population- pyramid …Cont’d
• which indicates a large proportion of child and small

proportion of old people.
• By contrast, countries which are economically advanced

may have rectangular in shape, with a slight sloping at
the peak, which indicates lower percentage of young and
higher percentage of adults and the elderly population.
345
Age Composition
• Population- pyramid …Cont’d
• Population pyramid may take three forms:

A. Progressive (Expansive) Population Pyramid
B. Stationary Population Pyramid
C. Regressive (Constrictive) Population
Pyramid
346
Age Composition
A. Progressive (Expansive) Population
Pyramid
• Progressive population pyramid is featured by
broad base and narrow top which indicates large
birth rate, and high death rates and hence triangular
shaped structure.
• This pyramid represents greater numbers of

people in the younger age categories
347
Age Composition
• Progressive (Expansive) Population
Pyramid….Cont’d
is typical of many developing countries where birth

rates are high, but conditions are harsh, and life
expectancy is short.
This indicates a high birth rate and an expanding
population. 348
Age Composition
• B. Stationary Population Pyramid
• This pyramid indicates low population growth where

old and young elements are so balanced and take
shape of more or less square
• It typically reveals the population of
developed countries. 349
Stationary Population • A stationary pyramid shows roughly equal
Pyramid……. Cont’d
numbers of people in all age categories, with
a tapering towards the older age categories.
• Countries such as Sweden show stationary
age categories because of relatively low,
constant birth rates, and a high quality of
life.
• An age-sex structure that indicates no or
very little population growth.
• The pyramid is characterized by relatively
straight sides.
350
Age Composition
• C. Regressive (Constrictive) Population Pyramid
• A constrictive pyramid has fewer people in the younger age
categories, and has been typical of U.S
• The structure has a fairly wide top with a bulging middle and
narrow base. 351

Age Composition
Regressive (Constrictive)
Population Pyramid…..Cont’d
• The birth rate is low and hence the
narrow base, more adults.
• This structure shows decreasing
population.
• Generally, a large proportion of
people in the younger age groups.
352
Age Composition
• High-fertility countries of Africa with large

proportions of young adults and children are
examples.
• Other populations are relatively old, such as many
countries in Europe & Japan.
• These two types of populations have markedly

different age compositions; as a consequence, they
also have different proportions of the population in
the labor force ,school e.t.c 353
Age Composition
• 3) The Age Indices
• is simply the computation of dependency ratio which

is relevant for the purpose of man power planning,
population growth analysis, migration analysis, etc.
• Basically, there are three types of dependency ratio.

These are: 1. Age dependency ratio
2. Young dependency ratio
3. Old age index.

354
Age Composition
• 1. Age dependency ratio.
• The age-dependency ratio is the ratio of people in the
“dependent” ages (those under age 15 and ages
65and older) to those in the “economically
productive” ages (15 to 64 years) in a population.
• The age-dependency ratio is often used as indicators
of the economic burden the productive portion of a
population
355
Age Composition
• Age dependency ratio….Cont’d
• Countries with very high birth rates usually have the
highest age-dependency ratios because of the large
proportion of children in the population.
• Age dependency ratio = Dependet population  100
Independent population
= Number of children under 15 + Number of elderly > 65  100
Number of adult 15 -64

356
Age Composition
• Age dependency ratio….Cont’d
• Exercise
a hypothetical country has 20 million populations out of

which, 6 million and 2 million are under 15 yrs of age and
above 65 yrs of age respective. Calculate age dependency
ratio. ?
• Solution
• 6 Million + 2 Million  100 = 8 million  100 =66.7
12 Million 12 Million
 66.7 dependets per 100 Working population 357

Age Composition
 The age-dependency ratio is sometimes divided into old-age
dependency (the ratio of people ages 65 and older to those
ages 15 to 64).
• Oldage -dependency ratio Pop>64 yrs of Age  100
Pop15-64 yrs of age

 Young dependency (the ratio of people under age 15 to those
ages 15 to 64).
• Young- age dependency ratio PoP < age 15 yrs of age  100
Pop 15- 64 yrs of age

358
4.1.2. Sex composition
• Sex composition is also important characteristics of

population to determine rate of fertility and their
contribution to economic development of the country.
• Sex composition of the human population is one of the

basic demographic characteristics, which is extremely
vital for any meaningful demographic analysis.
359
Sex composition…..Cont’d
• Sex ratio defined here as the number of females per

100 males in the population.
• Sex ratio is an important social indicator to
measure the extent of prevailing equity between
males and females
• in a society and influences directly the incidence of
marriage, birth, migration, economic activities, etc.
360
• Sex ratio measures the balance between male and female
population.
• Sex ratio: The sex ratio is the ratio of males to females in the
population (normalized to 100).
 Sex-Ratio = Male population  100
Female population
 When sex ratio is greater than 100 it indicates larger proportion
of males than females.
 and if it is less than 100 it entails larger proportion of females
than males
361
• Example, 2007 CSA report of country reveal that 7,425,918

and 7,503,630 are male and females respectively in
SNNPR, then compute sex ratio of the region by that year.
• 7,425,918  100 = 98.9
7,503,630
 sex ratio of SNNPR is the number of female slight
larger than male. male, 99 male to 100 female
362
Beyond these variables, population is also
characterized by:
• Family and household size
• family size of greater than six, three to six and less
than three referred to be large family size, medium
family size and small family size respectively.
• Large family size is the salient feature of less
developing world
• whereas most commonly small family representing
developed world. 363
• Family and household size…… Cont’d
• But now a day around the world, there is tendency of having small
family size due to shortage of agricultural land, and increased awareness
about the effects of large family size.
•Marital status
• based this, population can categorized as
• single,
• married,
• widow,
• divorced.
364
Marital status
• Most significant portions of young age population

who have never got married are included under
single including children below their legal marriage
age, adults and celibates.
• Married ones include the section of country’s

population who are under the bondage in the form of
spouses (husband and wife) which have significant
contribution of fertility rate of a given region.
365
Marital status
 Marriage can be one of the three forms
A. Monogamy: a bond between one man to
one woman
B. Polygamy: marriage bond of one man to more
than one women at the same time
C. Polyandry: marriage of one woman to more than
one men at the same time
366
Marital status
• Marriage rates can be calculated to identify the

frequency of marriage occur in a given population.
• Marriage rate =Number of marriage  100
Total population
367
Marital status
• Divorced population
• is a proportion of population who once got married

but legal or formally broken their bond by agreement
between two members.
• Otherwise, it is said to be separation (hence,
separated population, not divorced).
• The occurrences of divorce among population can be
computed as number of divorce per 1000 population.
368
Marital status
• Divorced population.......Cont’d
• Divorce –rate = Number of divorces  1000
Total population
Level of income:
• based on the income individual earn per day or month or year there are
three group of population with complicated criteria of categorization.
 High income earning
 Medium income
 Low income
369
Level of income…..Cont’d
• Generally, less developed countries have population
with larger proportion of low income inhabitants
and more developed ones with high income.
• Overall small percentages of population consume
greater percentage of resource and larger proportion
of population of the developing world consume very
limited amount of resource.
370
• Based on occupation: population can classified as
 Employee Primary economic activities

 Employee in secondary economic activities
 Employee in tertiary and other economic

activities
 Most developing worlds are still engulfed by

agrarian though the proportion shows a decline in
the sector.
371
• Place of residence:
 based on place of residence, population can be seen

into two broad group i.e
 as urban population and
 rural population.
• Place of residence is also another important character of

population clearly differentiating developed and
developing world.
372
• Place of residence…..Cont’d
• Developed world is characterized by larger proportion
of urban population and the reverse is true in case of
developing world with high rate of urbanization.
• Percentofurbanpop = urban dwellers  100
Total Population
Percentofruralpop =number of rural dwellers  100
Total population
Urban pop ratio = number of urban dweller(pop)  100
number of rural dwellers (pop)
373
• Urban pop ratio
• When Urban pop ratio greater than 100 reveals
larger proportion of urban population and otherwise
larger proportion of rural population, but if it equals
100 it indicates equal proportion of rural and urban
population.
374
In general, demographic situation in less developed
and more developed countries can summarized as
follow by comparison to each other
 Demographic situation in less developed world:
High fertility rate/rapid population growth

High but sharply decline mortality rate;
Low life expectancy;

High emigration rate;
Low level of health condition;
High infant mortality rate;
375
• Demographic situation in less developed world…..Cont’d
Wide spread poverty;

Majority of population are employed in primary
economic activities dominantly agrarian;
Low per capita income as well as low overall income;
High illiteracy;
Low age marriage or prevalence of early marriage;
High dependency ratio, child dependency being the
leading, but the trend shows it is decline due to late
introduction of family planning; 376
Demographic situation in less developed world…..Cont’d
Low financial capital for expansion of social

infrastructures;
Wide spread unemployment;
Low level of urbanization but high rate of
urbanization due to rapidly growing population;
Relatively balanced sex ratio;
Large family size; etc
377
Demographic features of more developed world:
 Low fertility rate;
 Stagnant or very low growth of population;
 Higher age marriage;
 Higher rate or increasing divorce;
 Large number of illegitimate children;
 High immigration rate both legal and illegal;
 High life expectancy; 378

• Demographic features of more developed world:
Low age dependency ratio, but highly increasing old age

dependency;
Low sex ration or Wider gap between sexes, females being
dominant;
High level of urbanization but slow or stagnant rate of
urbanization;
Majority of population are employed in service sectors;
High income per capita;
Small family size;
379
• Demographic features of more developed world:
High income per capita;

Small family size;
Technological advancement;
Higher literacy rate; etc
380
Chapter Five
• Population Theories and

Models
381
Population Theories
• Man has been concerned about the nexus between man-

resources and population problems since ancient times.
• From antiquity, statesmen and thinkers have held opinions based on
 political,
 military,
 social,
 economic
 and environmental considerations about such issues as the most desirable
number of people or the need to stimulate or retard population growth.
382
Population Theories
• Although the relationship between human population

growth and the availability of natural resources has
occupied the minds of many thinkers since early time.
• a formal and modern population theory was developed
in the 18th C.
• Thomas Robert Malthus who for the first time gave a
systematic analysis of population and resources.
383
Population Theories
Views on population are seen in three broad

classes as
1, Pre-Malthusian theories
2, Malthusian theory
3, Post Malthusian theories
384
1.Pre-Malthusian Theories (Ancient & Medieval Writings on Population)
A. Chinese philosophers
B. Greek philosophers
- Plato
- Aristotle
C. The Romans view
D. The Christian writers
E. Muslim writers
F. Mercantilists Views
385
A. Chinese philosophers
• views on population issues appear in the works of

Confucius and his school as well as in the works of
others ancient Chinese philosophers.
• The Chinese philosophers have contributed two basic
issues to population thoughts, these are: optimum
population and population checks.
386
Chinese philosophers
• Chinese philosophers proposed an ideal balance (proportion)
between land and population and they assumed the
deviation of the two would create poverty and environmental
degradation.
• They indicate that all the presence of a country’s resource
must be balanced with population size.
• They held that government was primary responsible for

maintaining such balance by moving people from
overpopulated to under populated areas
387
Chinese philosophers
• These philosophers argued that insufficient food

supply leads to .
 high infant mortality,
premature marriage,
environmental degradation,
 civil war, and costly marriage ceremonies
reducing marriage rates ultimately checks
population growth. 388
B. Greek philosophers
• the writers of ancient Greece were more concerned
with the formulation of policies and rules for
population than with theories about it.
• Plato and Aristotle discussed the question of the

“optimum” population with respect to the Greek city.
• They considered the problem of population size not

so much in economic terms, but more from point of
view of defense, security and Gov't. 389
Greek philosophers……Cont’d
• The thought was that population should be self-

sufficient, and thus possess enough territory to supply
its needs .
 Plato.
 held that if the so-called “highest good” was to be

achieved, the city-state should have 5040 citizens
as sufficient for requirement of state or gov’t.
390
• Plato…..Cont’d
• He proposed measures to be taken to maintain desirable

number in case of excess or shortage of population from
the figure
 In the case of under-population, he recommended
rewards, advice or rebuke to the young in order to
increase birth rate, and, and in migration (immigration).
 To over-populated areas he proposed birth control and
outmigration. 391
Aristotle
 stated that size and extent the state should be such
as enable the inhabitants to live at once
temperately and liberally in enjoyment of leisure.
 He held that land and property could not be
increased as rapidly as the population would
grow and concluded that an excessive number of
inhabitants would breed poverty and social ills.
392
 Aristotle.
 stated that size and extent the state should be such as

enable the inhabitants to live at once temperately and
liberally in enjoyment of leisure.
 He held that land and property could not be increased

as rapidly as the population would grow and
concluded that an excessive number of inhabitants
would breed poverty and social ills. 393
C. The Romans view
• the Romans viewed population question in the

perspective of a great empire as a matter of fact for
their expansion and military colonization.
• They were less conscious than the Greeks of possible
limits to population growth and more alert to its
advantages for military and related purposes.
394
The Romans view…….Cont’d
• Romans writers generally advocated early marriage to

increase marriage and birth rates.
• They proposed to punish the divorce, unmarried and
childless through extra taxation and reward those
married and having large family size.
395
D. The Christian writers
• The Hebrew sacred books placed much emphasis on
procreation and multiplication and for this reason
unfruitfulness was regarded as a serious misfortune.
• This favored fertility and multiplication.
• Early and mediaeval Christian writers considered
questions of population almost entirely from moral, ethical
and religious standpoints.

396
The Christian writers……Cont’d
• They condemn polygamy, birth control because they

considered them as sin and support monogamy, large
family size (too many children, considering it as
blessing).
397
E. Muslim writers
• The Arab philosophers particularly Ibn Khaldun

noted that a densely settled population is conducive
for innovations
 He held that a densely settled population was
conducive to higher levels of living since it permitted
 a grater division of labour,
 a more effective use of resources
 military and political security
398
F. Mercantilists Views
399
2. Malthusian Theory
• During the 1700s, there was one man who was very
interested in the future of the human population and
had an opinion very different than most.
• Thomas Malthus, an English philosopher who lived
from 1766 to 1834, was the first man to publicly
predict the limits of the human population and how
population and well-being are connected.
400
Malthusian Theory……..Cont’d
• In 1798, Malthus wrote An Essay on the Principle of

Population, which explained his predictions and
changed the view of many people.
• Malthus viewed population and food (resource)
links based the idea of man’s capacity to reproduce
was unlimited, whereas that of producing his means
of subsistence was limited.
401
• On this basis he proposed that population tends to

double itself every twenty-five years, thus, would
increase in geometric proportions (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64,
128, 256 …)
• while the food resources available for them would
increase only in arithmetic
proportions(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,……).
402
• This implies that a population of one million would

double to two million in 25yrs to four million over
next 25yrs and so on, but food supply could be
expected to progress from one million tons to two
million tons in 25 yrs and to three million tons over
the next 25yrs.
403
• This gap between the rates of increase of population

and food supply creates what he termed as ‘positive’
conditions such as
 wars,
famines and
epidemics that act as checks against
overpopulation.
404
• He was against the use of birth control methods and abortion

to check population. He suggested some ‘preventive’ checks
for overpopulation like prolonged celibacy and late marriage
(see the detail below).
• Malthus therefore concluded that the population increase

should be kept down to the level at which it could be
supported by the operation of various checks on population
growth, which he categorized as "preventive" and
"positive" checks 405
 Preventive checks: voluntary arise from man’s

reasoning faculties which enable him to foresee
distant consequences and these include moral
restraint, which consisted mainly of the
late marriage,
celibacy and prevention of birth of children,
extra-marital sexual relations and prostitution.
406
 Positive checks: all factors which contributed in any
degree to shortening of the normal duration of life
(longevity).
• Among them were epidemics, wars, plague and famine,
all manifestations of misery.
• Malthus, the positive check acts more intensively in
lower classes, where infant mortality rates are higher
and unhealthy conditions are more common. 407

• The preventive and positive checks, by controlling

population growth, eventually close the mismatch
between the level of population and the
availability of resources. , but the latter at a cost of
creating misery and wickedness that cannot be
avoided and are beyond the control of men.
408
• He asserted that although these factors operate in every
country, in most cases population would increase beyond
the means of subsistence (carrying capacity) and results in
over population.
• From a Malthusian perspective technology and
environment (considered in terms of land resources) are
seen as independent variable that works to determine the
dependent variable of population. 409

Technology Environment Population
Population grow
geometrically
Population exceeds
Population is kept in “check”– carrying capacity…
preventative and/or positive checks
410
3. Post Malthusian theories
• Different views came from different angle after Malthus theory
on population.
1.Neo (new or modern)-Malthusian theories
• This writers support the basic premise of Malthus by
advocating massive birth control programs.
• Population increase without development will lead to numerous
economic, social and environmental problems they tend to
modify and reinterpreted Malthus’s concepts to fit the
contemporary situation. 411

Post Malthusian theories
• Neo (new or modern)-Malthusian theories…..Cont’d
• This group of theorist with their view on “limit to
growth” published in 1972
• suggested based on least developed countries that
unbalance between population number and resource
availability would only cause poverty, environmental
deterioration like climate change, pollutions, land
degradation, war, etc.
412
• If present growth trends to continue, and if
associated industrialization, pollution, food production
and resource depletion continue unchanged, the limits
to growth on this planet will be reached sometime in
the next one hundred years.
• The most probable result is expected to be a sudden and
uncontrollable decline in population and industrial
capacity. 413
• Neo (new or modern)-Malthusian theories…..Cont’d
• However, like Malthus they failed to recognize the ability

of humans to respond to situations and innovate and human
responses can change situation by inventing e.g. alternative
energy, HYV – High Yield Variety seeds that even support
two Asian giants by population (china and India).
• Therefore, Neo Malthusians are conserved to be direct
reflection Malthus view in new 20th century.
414
2.Marxists and socialist population theories
• Marxist analyses of population include the works of Karl

Marx and Frederic Engle.
• Marx in contrast to universal law of population stated

that there could be no natural general and universal law
of population
• population was determined by the social and economic

conditions prevailing in different societies. 415
• Marxists and socialist population
theories….Cont’d
• He noted that number of births and deaths as well as
absolute family size is inversely related to income
and hence to the means of subsistence available to
different categories of workers.
• He stated that over-population which is in fact
relative, arose from capital accumulation.
416
• Marxists and socialist population theories….Cont’d
• `\He suggested that population growth is a symptom and not
root cause of poverty, resource depletion, pollution and social
problems.
417
• Engle on the other hand, maintained that the

productive power of mankind was unlimited, since
productivity in general and the land in particular, can
increase by the application of capital, labor and
science.
• Thus, he rejected the law of diminishing returns
which he considered implicit in Malthus’s writing.
418
3.Boserup’s theory of population
• People have resources of knowledge and technology

to increase food supply as necessary. Environments
have limits that restrict population. But these limits
can be changed using technologies.
• Boserup’s focus her attention on exploring the role of
population as an independent variable that influences both the
development of agricultural technology which, in turn, shapes
the productive capacity of resources.
419
• Boserup’s theory of population…..Cont’d
• Population is not the dependent variable. It is the

independent variable determining agricultural
developments.
• Thus, Population growth is the trigger for innovation to

allow food supply to increase e.g. irrigation, weeding, crop
intensification, better seed quality, tools, techniques etc.
420
• Boserup approaches the problem of population

and resource from opposite direction to
Malthus’s.
• Thus, population changes often have direct effect up
on agricultural technology and economic production.
421
422
The Demographic Transition
Model
• The Demographic Transition Model (DTM) is a popular
method for analyzing the evolution of the world
population.
• It shows the expected changes in birth and death rates
over an unspecified time frame.
• The DTM is based on the historical experience of Europe,
as birth and death rates declined, beginning in the case of
those nations in the late-18th and early-19th centuries.
423
The Demographic Transition Model….Cont’d
• The only variables that are forecast by this model are

birth and death rates,
• but many scientists believe that economic development
is the major factor causing the birth and death rates to
fluctuate.
• They argue that with economic development, people
gain better access to birth control; public health and
sanitation improves; women become more independent;
and food and basic necessities become more plentiful. 424
• These improvements, in turn, increase life expectancy
and eventually prompt women to have fewer children.
• What evidence is there to support the theory that economic
development leads to a decline in death and birth rates?
• The model is idealized, composite picture of population
change in western and industrialized countries.
425
• It focuses on historical changes in gaps between birth

rates and death rates.
• The changes show “…a transition from a relatively
stable demographic regime with high birth rates and
death rates to a similarly stable regime with low birth
rates and death rates….” This is known as the
demographic transition.
426
427
• The transition took places in stages.

• Characteristics of each stage of the classic four-stage
DTM.
428
Stage 1: High Stationary Stage (Europe between pre-history and about 1650)
• This represents the most primitive people where birth

and death rates are high and fluctuating.
• Death oscillates highly reflecting the impact of
recurrent famine, periodic war and epidemics of
infectious diseases.
• High birth rate on the other hand is the result of lack
of education and absence of family planning.
429

Stage 1: High Stationary Stage (Europe between pre-history and about 1650)…..Cont’d
This stage in short is characterized by:
 High fertility and mortality rates
 Lack of family planning
 Low natural increase resulted a stationary population

growth
 No or little education;
 Limited population growth;
 Low income and economy

430
Stage 2: Early Expanding Stage (Europe after 1650 up to the early 19th
century)
• In this stage, birth rates remain high, but death rates

fall sharply as a result of improved nutrition,
medicine, health care, sanitation and more transport.
• The difference of birth and death rate resulted in
increasing natural increase OR population begins to
grow rapidly.
431
Stage 2: Early Expanding Stage (Europe after 1650
up to the early 19th century)
• High birth rate & large family size
• Declining mortality
• Many young population
• Slight modification of health care
• Improving sanitations
• rapid population growth
• Increasing longevity
• Increasing and better food supply 432

Stage 3: Late Expanding Stage (Europe in the 19th century and about the early 20th C)
• Here, birth rates begin to drop rapidly, death rates

continue to drop, but more slowly.
• This results in declining natural increase and a slight
population growth.
• Economic and social gains, combined with better
awareness and use of contraceptive methods declines
birth rate
433
Stage 3: Late Expanding Stage (Europe in the 19th century and about the early 20th C)
 This stage generally characterized by

 Declining birth rate
 Low mortality rate

 Slow population growth
 Better education and awareness
 Industrialized way of life

 Women education and employment
434
Stage 3: Late Expanding Stage (Europe in the 19th
century and about the early 20th C)
• Higher longevity
• Increasing number of older people
• Marked use of birth controlling mechanisms
435
Stage 4: Low Stationary (Europe since the 1970s)
• Both birth and death rates are almost in balance, but

at a It manifests
• Stable or zero population growth
• Fertility is around or below replacement level
• Low birth and death rate

• High old dependency ratio much lower rate;
population growth is
436
Stage 5: Declining Stage (Europe, Russia &
Japan today)
• This characterizes declining population due higher

mortality rate than birth rate.
• This stage shows extremely low birth rate and fertility
rate is less than 2.
• Death rate is low but above fertility rate.
• In this stage the problem of dependency is common
because of unproductive old age population.
437
Japan today)….Cont’d
• Generally, DTM assumes that a country will move from a
pre-industrial (agricultural) economic base to an urban,
industrial one, with a corresponding decrease in family size
and population growth.
• The slowing of population growth theoretically results

from better standards of living, improvements in health
care, education (especially for women), sanitation, and
other public services.
438
Japan today)….Cont’d
• Although this four-stage pattern has been repeated in
other places besides Europe, there are local
variations, sometimes significant, as the trajectory of
development is everywhere different and by no means
inexorable.
439
Stage 5: Declining Stage (Europe, Russia & Japan
today)….Cont’d
• For example, many of today's least-developed
countries still retain the high birth rates characteristic
of Stage 2.
• Also, parts of Europe, Russia and Japan may be
entering a new, fifth stage, where birth rates are
below death rates, and the population ages and begins
to decline.
440
Chapter Six
• Population Resource Nexus

and Population Policies
441
Introduction
• The relationship between population and environment has a long
history, although in different times it may have been expressed in
somewhat different contexts, such as

• the relationship of population growth to governance (Plato and
Aristotle),
• to food production (Malthus),
• to agricultural growth (Boserup),

• to resource availability (Simon),
• to pollution (Meadows), and
• to land degradation (Blaikie and Moore). 442

Introduction…..Cont’d
• During hunting and gathers societies the activities of

man were completely under the control of nature but
in the latter years human influence on nature has been
increasing particularly after the agricultural and
industrial revolutions.
• The continued explosive human population growth
was keeping the world in a state of perpetual crisis
443
Introduction…..Cont’d
• Thus, studies related to the relationship between

population and resource have a paramount
importance to seek solutions.
444
6.1. The Relationship between Population and Resource
• Population - a group of similar species organisms

residing in a given geographical area.
• Man is the only active creature that influence nature, so

population here is to mean human population.
• Resource – components/things that helps to fulfill the

needs of a given population. There are two categories
of resources:
445
The Relationship between Population and
Resource…..Cont’d
• There are two categories of resources:
1.Human resource (skills, abilities, knowledge, etc)

2.Physical/natural resource – naturally endowed
resources and it can be of two types
446
447
• Human populations derive their livelihoods from the

resources of their habitats directly or indirectly.
• They differ from other populations in that they

develop specialized technologies and work patterns
(socio-cultural systems) to exploit these resources.
448
The relationship between population and env’t

(resources) in an area can be influenced b y:
 quantity, and quality of natural resources,
 scientific and technological capabilities,
 number of population, people’s and
 attitude towards resource exploitation etc
449
• Populations must achieve a delicate balance between
their demand for resources and the environment's
ability to supply them.
• A population that exists in ecological equilibrium has
a production system that satisfies both demand and
supply in harmonious relationship overtime.
450
• Either an increase in the population's demand for
resources or a decrease in the environments ability to
supply resources will upset (distress, trouble )the
ecological system.
• Growing population pressure is a major source of
such disturbance.
• Scarcity and competition for resources characterize
systems in ecological disequilibrium.
451
• Population growth and environmental degradation

are two of the great concerns of our age, as both are
seen to be problems of local and global importance.
452
• Any geographical area has what is known as a
carrying capacity (C.C.) which is the maximum
number of people it can sustainably support with the
available natural resources.
• This C.C. will vary through time with changes in
technology and economic and social development.
453
 The C.C. can vary widely

• Example.
• Bangladesh with its fertile, low-lying, delta plains has
a C.C. of 500 per km2.
• Semi-arid West Africa, on the other hand, with its poor
soils, unreliable rainfall etc. has a C.C. of 10 per km2.
454
• By taking carrying capacity as reference point, the

relationships between an area’s total population
and its natural resources can be categorized as.
 overpopulation,
optimum population and
Under -population.
455
456
• A. Under population
• Under population is where there are too few people
living in an area to efficiently exploit and use the
natural resources within that area
• e.g. Northern Canada has huge mineral wealth but
too few people to exploit those minerals because of
climatic constraints).
457
• Under population…..Cont’d
• Shortly, under-population exists when the population
numbers are too small to fully exploit an area’s
resources
• or conversely where the resources could support a much
bigger population than they do, without lowering the
standard of living.
• I.e. Population Density/km2< C.C./km2.
458
• Under population…..Cont’d
• A good example of a country that has tried to manage
OVER and UNDER population within its borders is
Indonesia.
• Here, the government launched a massive
transmigration program.
459
Cause of under-population
1 .Environmental disadvantages
• The majority of under-populated countries have
certain physical disadvantages .
• Eg. Climate , Vegetation, Soil etc
• Which discourage people from living there and
without enough economic development is restricted
460
Cause of under-population …..Cont’d
A. Climate
Very extreme climate i.e too hot, too cold, too wet,or too
dry are usually unfavorable for concentration of people
 Canada and siberia have extremely severe winter with

many months when temperature are blow freezing point
 The equatorial climate of the Amazon Basin with its
high humidities and the hot desert condition of the
central Australia desert also discourage a people from
settling there
461
• All these areas have vast mineral resources but unless the companies
involved can make substantial profits and afford to pay workers very high
wage for worker in such physical conditions settlement and development
will not occur.
B Vegetation The natural vegetation on an area can prove an
obstacle to settlement and economic development if it is costly

and difficult to clear for building houses, road etc.
Eg The norther coniferous forest of canada and siberia (taiga

)or the tropical rainforest (TRF)of Brazil.
462
C. soil
 infertile soil once the natural vegetation has been
removed which can again deter settlers.
 Thus may under-population areas suffer from
physical disadvantages which makes unfavorable for
settlement and economic development even if there area
abundant supplies such as natural resource: mineral
463
2. Accessibility.
• Physical drawback often restrict the development of communication which result in
under-popularion.
• If people and companies find it difficult or costs to travel to an area they are reluctant
to make the journey
• The actual size or area of a country is relevant here
• Many under-populated countries have large areas so the development of successful
network of communication is obviously far from expensive than in small one
• New zeland is the exception to the rule here : it is small and under-populated.
464
3. Communications
Establishing a basic communications network is often a major problem in an
under-populated area
a. roads. However ,without a basic road system little can be done to increase
the population numbers.
B. Railways :these are usually a much quicker means of an extensive system

to be developed is usually far from too great much higher than for road
C. AIR ; if the ground conditions are suitable i.e if it is feasible to crear the
land for landing strips, this is a very fast efficient and flexible system.
465
• Communications…..Cont’d
D. water river transport if often higher developed in
under-populated area as there is little is actual initial
cost involved.
eg Amazon basin and northern canada and can be
very convenient especially for bulky goods
4.Remoteness
• this is very closely linked to accessibility.
• Many under-populated areas are long ways from large
centers of population.
466
• Remoteness ….Cont’d
• One a world scale this is shown by newzeland which is a
considerable distance from its nearest sizeable neighbour
• Such isolated can have social drawback discourage large
present –day population concentration or past migration
• This remoteness is an important cause of under-
population ,as workers and their families want access to
varied shoping ,education,recreation facilities
467
5. Historical
• Many under-populated areas have been linked in the past
with a European national in colonial relationship such as
canada and Australia with Britain or brazil with portugal
• The become producer of primary goods the Europians
wheat from canada wool and meat from Australia and
coffee from Brazil.
468
6. Type of Economy:
• The volume of goods that they produce today could
support far more people than actually live there,
• People in such areas are usually members of prosperous
farming communities with a good standard of living.

.
469
7. Population composition
• most under-populated areas are ones where the indigenous
populations were only fairly small in number and

• when they did undergo colonization were largely left to carry
on with their traditional lifestyle whilst the newcomers
developed the country’s economy
470
Generally, the causes of under-population are summarized as
follows
471
Consequences of under-population
• Countries that are under-populated exhibit certain

characteristics both economically and socially.
1. High rate of immigration
 Under-populated countries tend to be ones which
encourage immigration as they need more people
to achieve their full economic potential.
472
Consequences of under-population……Cont’d
2. Foreign economic involvement

• many under-populated countries have foreign companies
involved in their economic activities as they lack the
population to support a large number of major corporations
themselves
• Such large amounts of foreign investment can be useful for
an under-populated country’s economy especially if it is a
LEDC but involvement needs to be carefully controlled.
473
3. Regional disparities
• This can cause problems of unrest in the less fortunate
areas and also exaggerate the situation of under-
population if people migrate from the more remote
regions to the wealthier ones in search of an improved
lifestyle.
• This has occurred in Brazil and increased housing and
other social problems in, for example, Sao Paulo.
474
4. Service provision:
• due to an overall lack of demand many under-
populated countries have a lower than average service
provision for their inhabitants.
• The threshold population necessary for certain
services may not be met.
475
5. Urban population:
• under-populated countries tend to exhibit a high degree of
urbanization because the people tend to live in the more
settled urban areas rather than in the less favorable remote
areas.
• Also, many such countries have many physical drawbacks
and people are less likely to be involved in rural
occupations.
476
6. High standard of living
• the majority of under-populated countries are
MEDCs. (Brazil is the exception here).
• They tend to have high levels of technology, (if
population resource ratios are low this is vital), high
income levels, (if workers are in demand they can
obtain higher wages) and a good standard of living.
477
6. High standard of living……Cont’d

• It is likely that the standard of living would rise even
further if the population rose due to an increase in
production and exploitation of resources.
478
• B. Optimum Population
• a theoretical condition occurs where there is a balance
between the population size and the amounts of
resources available.
• i.e. Population Density/km2= C.C./km2.
• It is an economic concept which believes in the
maximization of output where number of population
is balanced with resource availability. 479
• Optimum Population…..Cont’d
• In this case number of human being is balanced with any

given state of resource base.
• so that output per man will be maximum or is regarded as

a state of equilibrium between population and resource
available with them
• so that every individual should enjoy highest possible life

style.
480
• Optimum Population…..Cont’d
• The reality of achieving OPTIMUM population is
difficult in practice because of 2 main reasons:
– Population sizes are not static but DYNAMIC and
grow or shrink over time.
– Technology changes, allowing the exploitation of
natural resources that might not have previously
been available. 481
C. Overpopulation
is a condition where there are too many people living in a

nation or area relative to the natural resources (food,
water, fuel, building materials etc) that exist in that place.
Bangladesh, China, India etc are said to be overpopulated

because they have insufficient food, minerals and energy
resources to sustain their populations.
482
• Overpopulation…..Cont’d
• They suffer from localized natural disasters such as
drought and famine; and
• are characterized by low incomes, poverty, poor
living conditions and often a high level of emigration.
483
Possible Causes of Overpopulation
 Decline in the Death Rate:
• at the root of overpopulation is the difference between
the overall birth rate and death rate in populations.
 Better Medical Facilities:
• technological advancement was perhaps the biggest
reason why the balance has been permanently
disturbed.
484
Possible Causes of Overpopulation……Cont’d
• Better Medical Facilities….Cont’d
• Science was able to produce better means of producing

food, which allowed families to feed more mouths.
• Medical science made many discoveries thanks to which
they were able to defeat a whole range of diseases.
• Illnesses that had claimed thousands of lives till now
were cured because of the invention of vaccines.
485
 More Hands to Overcome Poverty:
• For thousands of years, a very small part of the
population had enough money to live in comfort.
• The rest faced poverty and would give birth to large

families to make up for the high infant mortality rate.
• Families that have been through poverty, natural

disasters or are simply in need of more hands to work
are a major factor for overpopulation.
486
Technological Advancement in Fertility Treatment.
With latest technological advancement and more discoveries
in medical science, it has become possible for couple who
are unable to conceive to undergo fertility treatment
methods and have their own babies.
Today there are effective medicines which can increases the
chance of conception and lead to rise in birth rate.

487
 Immigration
• Many people prefer to move to developed countries
like US, UK, Canada and Australia where best
facilities are available in terms of medical, education,
security and employment.
• The end result is that those people settle over there
and those places become overcrowded.
488
• Immigration……Cont’d
• Difference between the number of people who are
leaving the country and the number of people who
enter narrows down which leads to more demand
for food, clothes, energy and homes.
489
 Lack of Family Planning:
• Most developing nations have large number of people who

are illiterate, live below the poverty line and have little or no
knowledge about family planning.
• Getting their children married at an early age increase the

chances of producing more kids.
• Those people are unable to understand the harmful effects of

overpopulation and lack of ignorance prompts them to avoid
family planning measures.
490
Consequences of overpopulation
• Crowdedness and housing problems
• Pollution (air, water & land)
• Puts more pressure on natural resources and existing
social facilities/services
• Unending demands for civic amenities like roads,
transport, markets, etc.
491
Consequences of overpopulation…….Cont’d
• Unending demands for civic amenities like roads,

transport, markets, etc.
• Land fragmentation, water shortage and

decreased food supply
• Unemployment, underemployment, poverty,

homelessness etc
492
6.2 Population Policies
• Population policy is explicit or implicit measures

instituted by a government to influence population
size, growth, distribution or composition.
• They are government actions (laws, regulations,
programs), that try to influence the three agents of
population change (births, deaths and migration) ), as
a way to promote social and economic development.
493
Population Policies…..Cont’d
• The stated intent of these policies often, is to

improve the quality of life, consistent with the
available resource in a country
• OR population policies are guidelines which
targeting to balance the relationship b/n population
with env’t, economic growth, politics/security etc
494
• National Population projections are often the

stimulus for the introduction of population policies as
governments realize the implication of current growth
rates for the future size and structure of their
population.
495
 population policies are concerned with influencing

growth rates,
regulating fertility,
lowering mortality
 altering patterns of internal migration
 population distribution and controlling
international migration.
496
• More Developed Countries able to control population

growth first/before LEDCs.
• some European countries have still pro-natalist
policies on their concern about population decline.
• However, many laws and regulations enacted for
economic, health and welfare reasons do have
demographic implication.
497
• Population polices entered the agenda of many
governments of the developing world during the 1970s
as the implications of rapid population growth rates
became apparent.
• During the second half of the 20th century a large
number of countries developed policies that focused on
slowing the unprecedented pace of population growth.

498
 There are two types of

population policies
1. Pro- natalist policies
2. Anti natalist policies
499
1. Pro- natalist policies
 are population policies designed to encourage
population growth/fertility.
 The reasons may be linked to: military strength,
national pride, lack of working force etc
• Example: - Kuwait,
- Israel,
- Palestine,
- Jordan,
- Netherlands etc. 500
2. Anti natalist policies
 policies that discourage growth/fertility.
 The logic behind may associated to:
 balance resource with population number
 harmonize human relationship, supply

basic social services etc
Example: - India, China, Ethiopia, RSA
501
etc.
The Population Policy of Ethiopia
• Ethiopia has formulated its population policy for
the first time in 1993.
• In the mean time, a number of steps have been taken
and
 policy instruments formulated first to rehabilitate the
shattered social and economic infrastructure and
 secondly to lay down a strong foundation for sustainable
development in the years ahead.
502
The Population Policy of Ethiopia …..Cont’d
• Basically, the adverse climatic conditions and the

decline productivity in all sectors of the economy,
combined with the political situation that had existed
in the past two decades reduced the population of
Ethiopia in a side of absolute poverty.
• The economy grew at a rate lower than the
population growth.
503
Objectives of the National Population Policy
• The National Population Policy of Ethiopia has for its

major goal the harmonization of the rate of population
growth and the capacity of the country
• creating conditions conductive to the improvement of
the level of welfare of the population.
504
Objectives of the National Population
Policy…..Cont’d
• The task of harmonizing the rate of population growth

with the rate of economic and social development
requires the involvement and collaboration of a number
of governmental and non- governmental agencies
• The general objectives specified in the policy cannot be
handled without reference to the need for a well defined
division of labor among these agencies.
505
Policy…..Cont’d
The main objectives of the national policy can be
summarized as
 Closing the gap between high population growth and low
economic productivity through planned reduction of
population growth and increasing economic returns.
 Expending economic and social development processes
through holistic integrated development programs designed
to expedite the structural differentiation of the economy and
employment.
506
Policy…..Cont’d
 Reducing the rate of rural to urban migration.
 Maintaining/ improving the carrying capacity

of the environment by taking appropriate
environmental protection/ conservation
measures
507
Policy…..Cont’d
• Raising the economic and social status of women by

freeing them from the restrictions and drudgeries of
traditional life and making it possible for them to
participate productively in the larger community.
• Significantly improving the social and economic status of

vulnerable groups (women, youth, children and elderly).
508
6.3 Population, Poverty and Economic Development
• From the time of Malthus onwards, economists,

demographers and other social scientists have been
debating whether and how high fertility and rapid
population growth affect economic outcomes and vice
versa.
509
Population, Poverty and Economic Development
• Group assignment debating Topics out of 5( point)
• There are four basic forms of the debate.
I. Does a large number of children diminish a family's present well being

and future prospects?
II. Does rapid population growth adversely affect the overall performance
of the economy and its ability to achieve and sustain general well being?
III.Does low income, or poverty, contribute to high fertility?
IV. Is rapid population growth a symptom, rather than a cause, of low

national output and poor economic performance?
510
• Generally speaking, there has been a uniformly high

correlation between national income growth and
falling birth rates, and between family incomes and
fertility.
• In other words, there is no longer much debate about
whether or not improved economic conditions at
family level or at the societal level, lead to lower
fertility. 511
• That reductions in fertility and declining ratios of dependent

to working age populations provide a window of opportunity
for economic development and poverty reduction.
• countries which have incorporated population policies and
family planning programmes in their overall economic
development strategies and effectively implement it have
achieved high and sustained rates of economic growth and that
they have also managed significant reductions in poverty.

512
Population, Poverty and Economic
Development
• Likewise, with fewer children to care for and raise,
families can improve their prospects for escaping the
poverty trap.
• Thus, at both the macro- and micro-levels,
moderating fertility enhances economic prospects.
513
• Many of the world’s population live in poor countries already

strained by - food insecurity;
- inadequate sanitation
- water supply and housing;
- inability to meet the basic needs of the
current population.
 A large proportion of these populations are supported through
subsistence agriculture
514
• As populations grow competition for fertile land and
the used of limited resources increases.

• Meeting the increasing demand for food is probably
the most basic challenge and the most salient
population and environment crisis.
515
• Generally, throughout the developing world, declining

birth rates and rising living standards have gone hand
in hand.
• The evidence suggests that the interrelationship
between them represents a virtuous circle, whereby
improvements in one reinforce and accelerate
improvements in the other.
516
• The virtuous circle can be initiated either by investing

in human development programmes such as
healthcare and education or by investing in
programmes to reduce fertility.
• But the example of the East Asian Tigers suggests
that the best strategies have been those that do the
two simultaneously.
517
Chapter Seven
The Geography of
Settlement
518
Introduction
• It specifically addresses the
- definition,
-nature and
-historical development settlements.
• Settlements are broadly categorized as ‘rural’ and
‘urban’, therefore, this sub-section of the course also
deals about the size, characteristics, function and
problems of urban and rural settlements’.
519
7.1 Definition and Types of Settlement
• Though we use this term very frequently, but when it

comes for defining, it is very difficult to give a clear
cut definition.
• In simpler term we can define settlement as any
form of human habitation which ranges from a
single dowelling to large city.
520
Definition and Types of Settlement…..Cont’d
• The word settlement has another connotation as well as

this is a process of opening up and settling of a
previously uninhabited area by the people.
• In geography, this process is also known as occupancy.
• Therefore, we can say settlement is a process of
grouping of people and acquiring of some territory to
build houses as well as for their economic support.
521
• A settlement includes buildings in which they live or

use and the paths and streets over which they travel.
• Settlements can vary in size from the very small to
extremely large.
• They can be as small as one house and as large as a
megacity, home to tens of millions of people.
522
• They can be permanent or temporary.

• Settlements are classified on the basis of size and
function into
- URBAN and
- RURAL
523
Main Differences between Rural and Urban Areas
 Occupation
Rural Settlement
- Agriculture is the fundamental
occupation and
- majority of the population engaged in
agriculture.
 Urban Settlement
- No fundamental occupation.
-Most of people engaged in principally in
manufacturing, mechanical pursuits, trade commerce,
professions and other non-agricultural occupations.
524
Main Differences between Rural and Urban
Areas……Cont’d
 Population Size and Density
 Rural Settlement
• Size of community is very small.
• Density of population is lower
• Size of community is large.
• Population density is higher.
525
Main Differences between Rural and Urban
Areas……Cont’d
 Socio-cultural and economic composition.
Rural Settlement
 More homogenous population in social, racial,
economic and cultural traits.
 More heterogeneous population in religions,
languages, ethnicity, caste, and class race, economic
and other cultural attributes than the rural population.
526
The size of settlements is quite different,
 so in settlement geography these can be ranked
according
- to their population and
-the level of services available using a
settlement hierarchy pyramid.
 settlement size influences the number of services
available in the settlement
527
 as the size of a settlement increases, the frequency
of that settlement type decreases.
The larger the settlement, the higher up the

hierarchy it is due to the fact that it has more
functions and services and is therefore considered
more important.
528
settlement hierarchy pyramid.
529
Detail characteristics of the above settlements’
A Shows that the higher up the

hierarchy:
 the larger the size of the settlement
the less of that type of settlements there

are
the area each individual settlement

covers increases
the range and number of functions /

services increases.
530
Detail characteristics of the above settlements’
 B shows that the lower down

the hierarchy:
 the smaller the size of the
settlement.
 the more of that type of
settlements there are
 the area each individual
settlement covers decreases.
 the range and number of
functions / services decreases.
531
Detail characteristics of the above settlements
READ AND UNDERSTAND THE CONCEPT
Settlement Type Characteristics Population Size

Megalopolis Where conurbations have joined to 10 million + people
become one large urban area.
Conurbation A group of large cities and their suburbs 3-10 million people

that have strong links connecting them to
each other
Metropolis A city and surrounding towns those are 1-3 million people

in close proximity and have started to
merge into each other.
Large city A city with a large population and many 300,000 - 1 million
services. people
532
City A city would have a wide range of 100,000-300,000 people
services but not as many as a large city.
Large Town Large towns now see a much more varied 20,000-100,000 people
range of shops available when compared
to villages
Town Towns see an increase in services, for 1,000-20,000 people

example, they would have senior schools
and police stations.
533
Village Villages start to have some 100 - 1,000 people
basic services like a petrol
station or a village shop.
Hamlet Hamlets have very tiny < 100 people

populations and few services,
if any.
Farmstead Isolated dwelling often in a few buildings at most,

rural areas, these tend to be usually one
farmhouses or holiday homes.
534
7.2 Concepts, Types and Patterns of Rural Settlements
• There are no universal criteria’s to

distinguish ‘rural’ from ‘urban’ areas.
• As a result, the definitions of rural settlements
vary between countries.
• In most countries, a government office, such
as a statistics or census bureau, determines the
criteria for a rural settlement.
535
Concepts, Types and Patterns of Rural
Settlements…..Cont’d
o Hence categorizing settlements is important as it

allows countries to analyze
 population and migration trends,
formulate national plans and direct funds
toward areas that need it most
536
• Generally, a settlement can be considered rural where

the greater part of the working population is
employed in primary sector activities.
• rural homes may be isolated from one another
(dispersed) or clustered together in small groups
(hamlets) or larger villages.
537
• Rural settlements offer farmers miles of open range to

raise animals and grow crops.
 There are many types of rural settlements such as,
 farmstead, = a few buildings at most usually one
 hamlet, and = <100 people
 village = 100- 1,000 people
538
There are many factors that can influence where
settlements locate within a region.
The site of a settlement, therefore is the actual
land that the settlements are built upon.
 NB Whereas the situation of a settlement is the
location of a settlement in relation to the things that
are around it.
Here, the physical, economic, political etc factors
that influence the site of rural settlements
539
Factors that can influence the locate of
rural settlements
A. Water Supply:
 Usually rural settlements are located near water
bodies such as rivers, lakes, and springs where water
can be easily obtained.
 The need for water drives people to settle in islands
surrounded by swamps or low lying river banks
540
Factors that can influence the locate of rural
settlements......Cont’d
• Water Supply.....Cont’d
• Water supply is main factor because water is used for
drinking, cooking and washing, rivers and lakes can
be used to irrigate farm land
• water bodies also have fish which can be caught for
diet and navigable rivers and lakes can be used for
transportation.
541
B. Land:
o Land, that is suitable for agriculture, is an important factor.
o Since rural settlements are predominantly agricultural in
nature, level plains and fertile lands needed for traditional
crops are highly preferred.
o In Europe villages are found near gently sloping land, in
south East Asia villages are near low lying river valleys and
coastal plains suited for wet rice cultivation.
542
C. Upland or Dry Land:
• Land, not threatened by floods, is usually chosen as a site

for settlements.
• In some parts of the world like Malaysia and Indonesia, houses are
built on stilts to get a protection from floods and also from animals
and insects.
• In equatorial countries, such houses are also found to be much cooler.
543
D. Building Material:
 The availability of building materials- wood, stone
near settlements is another factor.
 Early villages were built in forests where wood was
plentiful.
 In African Savanna’s mud bricks are used as
building materials and the Eskimos, in Polar Regions,
use ice blocks to construct igloos. 544

• E. Defense:
• in the past, strategic positions like hills, islands, etc.,
• were chosen to establish settlements in order to cope
with the high political instability and hostility among
ethnic clans, or tribes.
545
• F. Gov’t Plan:
• Settlements are reorganized or restructured according to

plans of governments or landlords, in order to facilitate
agricultural production.
• Mostly, it is the spreading of settlement into new areas

that needed planning.
• Such planned settlements are seen in the US and Canada

546
Before discussing types and patterns of rural
settlements, let us have some idea about the words:
‘type’ and ‘pattern’.
Type refers to a category of things having some
common features. whereas
pattern refers to a regular form or order in which a
series of things occur.
547
 When we say settlement pattern, the term is strictly
applied to the spatial arrangement or distribution
of settlements within a given area.
548
 Based on the size of population and density of
settlements’, geographers have suggested three
groups of rural settlements, these include;
1. Clustered or Compact Settlement

2. Semi-Compact Settlement
3. Dispersed Settlement
549
1. Clustered or Compact Settlement:-
• these are also known as agglomerated or nucleated
settlements, and consist of a compact of rural dwellings
with narrow, winding streets separating two rows of houses.
• Most of the river plains of monsoon Asia present compact
settlements.
• In the plains of India, China and Thailand, large nucleated

village is the prevailing type.
550
Clustered or Compact Settlement….Cont’d
• Here security, fertile soils, favorable climate, need for

co-operative labor in agriculture have been the main
factors promoting nucleation.
2. Semi-Compact Settlement.
• Such settlements are characterized by a small but
compact nuclears around which hamlets are
dispersed.
551
• Semi-Compact Settlement….Cont’ d
• Semi-Compact is a transitional phase in the growth of
compact settlement.
• Increase in population cause villages to grow in
number of houses.
• These houses occupy open spaces and lead to semi-
compact settlement which ultimately acquires a
nucleated settlement.
552
3. Dispersed Settlement.
 This is also known as isolated settlements.
 Here the settlement is characterized by units of small size

which may consist of a single house to a small group of
houses.
 It varies from two to seven huts.
 These are generally found in hills, plateaus, grasslands etc.
 If a part of the population left a village to found a new one

they often found dispersed rather than a new village.
553
554
Types of Rural Settlement Patterns
• The pattern of rural settlements is influenced by the
physical environment and socio- cultural factors like
caste, religion and functional needs of people
• 1. Rectangular Pattern:
 this is the most common pattern observed in rural
settlements.
 Rectangular settlements are developed over flat,

fertile, alluvial plains and wide valleys.
555
Types of Rural Settlement Patterns….Cont’d
2. Linear Pattern
 the houses are aligned along the sides of a road,
railway line, river, canal or valley.
 The physical restrictions associated with these
sites give rise to the linear pattern.
556
Types of Rural Settlement Patterns….. Cont’d
3. Circular and Semi-circular Pattern:

 settlements along seacoasts, around lakes, over mountain-tops
and along meandering rivers, develop circular or semi-circular
pattern.
 The population is mostly engaged in fishing, salt production

and tourist services like boating, providing boarding and
lodging.
557
4. Star-shaped Pattern
o at places where roads converge, radial or star-shaped
settlements develop.
o The new parts of settlement grow along the roads in
all directions.
558
• 5. Triangular Pattern:
• points, such as meeting place of rivers give rise to a trian

gular pattern of settlements.
• 6. Nebular Pattern:
• it is a circular pattern developing all around a centre.
• This centre could be anything ranging from a temple to a

landlords house, etc.
• Rural settlements can be classified based on the size and

pattern or shape 559
Common Rural Settlement Issues and Problems
560
561
7.3 Nature and Typology Urban Settlements
• Broadly speaking, an urban settlement is a densely

populated area
• urban settlement comprising mostly man-made
structures that contain all of a society's
administrative, cultural, residential and religious
functions.
562
Nature and Typology Urban Settlements……Cont’d
• In some countries, like the Soviet Union, India,

Ethiopia etc official urban municipalities may be
considered an urban settlement if they meet
population and density criteria set by the country's
government.
• There is no universal definition of urban areas.
563
Nature and Typology Urban Settlements
 Different countries define urban localities in terms of

different factors such
 as size and density of population
 amenities considered to be commonly available in
urban areas,
 major economic activities of population, etc.
564
Nature and Typology Urban Settlements
• Also not all those countries which define urban areas

in terms of the same factors use the same threshold
values for distinguishing urban localities from rural
localities.
• This makes comparison between levels of

urbanization between different countries as
somewhat problematic.
565
Nature and Typology Urban Settlements……Cont’d
• UNO attempted to classify the various definitions of the

term used by different countries.
• Thus, it has identified five different categories of
definitions of urban (see the criteria to define urban below).
i) Population Size
ii) Administrative Structure
iii) Existence of municipality
iv) Layout and amniotic of a settlement
v) Occupational Structure
566
• i) Population Size
• This group refers to those countries which define
their urban settlement by setting a minimum size
of population.
• Even here, significant degree of variation among
users is seen.
567
Population Size see the criteria to define
urban below).
Countries Population size Countries Population size
to define ‘urban’ to define ‘urban’
Peru 100 USA 2,500
Sweden 200 Ghana 5,000
Iceland 200 Greece 10,000
Denmark 250 Portugal 10,000
Ethiopia 2,000 Netherlands 20,000
France 2,000 India 5000
568
• ii) Administrative Structure:
• the second factor considered to define ‘urban’
whether a settlement has administrative functions or
not. is the status of the settlement.
• iii) Existence of municipality:
• the presence of a chartered municipality is another

factor used to define urban by different countries.
569
• iv) Layout and amniotic of a settlement
o for example if a settlement has the following, it can
be designated ’urban’ by some countries.
 Proper street pattern
 contiguously aligned buildings,
 Public utility services, such as electricity, water
supply, sewerage system, stations, etc.
570
• v) Occupational Structure:
• to this end a specific minimum proportion workers
are required to be engaged in non-agricultural
activities.
• It should be noted that the minimum proportions set
by different countries are still different.
571
• v) Occupational Structure…..Cont’d
• In most instances a combination of factors is used by
countries to define urban settlements
• for instance, an urban settlement in Ethiopia need to
have a population of 2000 and above, 75% of its
inhabitants should engaged in non-agricultural sector
and there must be a chartered municipality.
572
573
Concepts of Urbanization
• Urbanization refers to the process of growth in the
proportion of population living in urban areas.
• Although the form of this relationship has remained
contested, there is a general consensus among
scholars that a fundamental characteristic of
urbanization is the structural shift in employment
from agriculture to non-agriculture pursuits.
574
Concepts of Urbanization……Cont’d
• In other words, urbanization is a territorial response to

structural changes in the economy.
• Rate of urbanization - refers to the pace at which
urbanization is occurring.
• Level of urbanization - the percentage of the number
of people living in urban areas.
 N.B. The rate of urbanization is high in developing
countries and the level is high in developed countries.
575
• Urbanization does not imply urbanism.
• Urbanization refers to growth of urban population, in

relation to rural population.
• The term urbanism was coined by Louis Wirth (2009)
to refer to ways of life in towns and cities.
• More than one half of the world population lives now
in urban areas, and virtually all countries of the world
are becoming increasingly urbanized
576
• This is a global phenomenon that has nonetheless
very different expressions across regions and dev
• richer countries and those of Latin America and the
Caribbean have already a large proportion of their
population residing in urban areas.
577
• whereas Africa and Asia, still mostly rural, will

urbanize faster than other regions over the coming
decades
• These trends are changing the landscape of human
settlement, with significant implications for living
conditions, the environment and development in
different parts of the world
578
579
Group discussion 5 Min
• In what ways towns and cities of the world are
classified?
580
• By taking function of urban settlements into
accounts, urban centers can be categorized into five
basic groups.
1. Administrative Towns:
2. Defence Towns
3. Cultural Towns:
4. Industrial Towns
5. Trading and Commercial Towns
581
1. Administrative Towns: -
• National capitals, which have headquarters of the
administrative offices of Central Government.
Example new Delhi, Canberra, Moscow, and
Washington.
• 2. Defence Towns:-
• Centres of military activities are known as defence
towns.
582
• 3. Cultural Towns: -
• towns famous for religious, educational or recreational

functions are called cultural towns.
• Places of pilgrimage, such as Jerusalem, Mecca,

Jagannath Puri and Varanasi etc. are considered as
religious towns.
• There are also recreational towns such as Las Vegas in

the USA.
583
• 4. Industrial Towns: -
• Mining and manufacturing regions.
• Towns which have developed due to setting up of industries such as
Jameshdpur are called industrial towns.
• 5. Trading and Commercial Towns: - Many old towns were famous
as trade centres such as Lahore in Pakistan, Baghdad in Iraq and Agra
in India.
• Some towns have developed as transport towns such as Rotterdam in
the Netherlands, Aden in Yemen and Mumbai in India are port towns.
584
Major problems of urban areas in developing
countries are: …….Cont’d
• 1. Economic Problems :
– Uncontrolled urbanization due to large-scale in-migration of
rural people.
– Decreasing employment opportunities in the rural as well as
smaller urban areas has caused large scale rural to urban
migration.
– The huge migrant population in urban areas creates stagnation
and generates a pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour

585
force.
Economic Problems…….Cont’d
– Urban areas suffer from shortage of housing,
transport, health and civic amenities.
– A large number of people live in substandard housing
i.e. slums and squatter settlements or on the streets.
– Illegal settlements called squatter settlement are
growing as fast as the city.
586
2. Socio-cultural Problems :
• Cities in the developing countries suffer from several
social ills.
o Inadequate social infrastructure and basic facilities is
due to lack of financial resources and over-population
in the cities.
o The available educational and health facilities remain
beyond the reach of the urban poor.
587
Socio-cultural Problems…..Cont’d
• Cities suffer from poor health conditions.
• Lack of employment and education tends to
aggravate the crime rates.
588
3. Environmental Problems :
• The large urban population in developing countries uses and
disposes off a huge quantity of water and all types of waste
materials.
• Many cities of the developing countries do not provide the
minimum required quantity of drinkable water and water for
domestic and industrial uses.
• An improper sewerage system creates unhealthy conditions.
589
• Environmental Problems…..Cont’d
• Massive use of traditional fuel in the domestic as well
as the industrial sector severely pollutes the air.
• The domestic and industrial wastes are either let

into the general sewerages or dumped without
treatment at unspecified locations.
590
O U
Y
N K
H A
T
591

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Geography of Population and

 are expected to learn basic concepts related to population

 Differentiate the term population geography from population

 Identify the main sources of demographic data

 Comprehend the pattern of world population distribution

 Identify the types of population policies being implemented

• Hence, a single organism cannot be a population if it is

• On the other hand, organisms belonging to two or

•Why do we study human population?

to plan and allocate budget with level of demand.

economy with the number of population.

environment or development, military as well.

1.1 Meaning, Scope and Historical Development of Population Geography

• The term population has wider notion, it includes three

• Population geography is a compound term formed by

combining two words, population and geography.

• Geography is a scientific discipline concerned

Geography is a scientific discipline • Population refers to an

• The term population is also used to designate "a

• Or, shortly, population geography is a subset of human geography

Spatial distribution of population: main emphasis is space and the manner it is

• There for, the study of settlement is the main concern of

• population geography as a recognized branch of

Population dynamics  The academic evolution

 Population dynamics that is birth, death and

 The availability of data and the presence of

After ww II most countries in the world conduct a

• But in more developed countries the implication of

- depletion of energy and mineral resource are

After 1950’s, 1060’s and 1970’s the study of fertility, mortality

 The change in political structure and policies After

large number of independent countries was

• Human population is a multi-disciplinary issue and

• Other than geography, demography, sociology,

- is the one concerned with the inherent (genetic) or

- It is more concerned with spatial variations in

temporal, rather than spatial dimension.

- It is more interested in the number of births, deaths,

• N.B. The difference in the study of human population by

geographers or other social scientists lies in their

approaches of studies. Population geography differs

from others in that it threats human population in the

context of spatial variation. 31

• Human population is therefore, the leading creature

• These data can be processed to indicate present and

a) Census :has a long history and taking started nearly

- But modern censuses were first held in the

- By the end of eighteenth and beginning of

NB. The United Nations defines a population census as in

• A census provides more reliable and accurate data if

• “the process of collecting, compiling and

. OR Housing census is the total process of

iv) Government Sponsorship

vi) Expensiveness and

vi) Wider Range of Data 40

• there should be a defined time gap between censuses/ census is

• iv) Government Sponsorship

• Governments arrange, finance and implement census

• This has limited the development of census operations

• vi) Wider Range of Data: