Pavement Failures,

Construction And Maintenance

Failure Types
• Fatigue (alligator) cracking
• Bleeding
• Block cracking
• Corrugation and shoving
• Depression
• Joint reflection cracking
• Lane/shoulder drop-off
• Longitudinal cracking
• Patching 
• Polished aggregate
• Potholes
•Raveling
•Rutting
•Slippage cracking
•Stripping
•Transverse (thermal) cracking
•Water bleeding and pumping
Fatigue (Alligator) Cracking
• Description: Series of interconnected cracks
caused by fatigue failure of the HMA surface (or
stabilized base) under repeated traffic loading.  In
thin pavements, cracking initiates at the bottom
of the HMA layer where the tensile stress is the
highest then propagates to the surface as one or
more longitudinal cracks.  This is commonly
referred to as "bottom-up" or "classical" fatigue
cracking. 
Load distribution in flexible pavements
• In thick pavements, the cracks most likely
initiate from the top .After repeated loading,
the longitudinal cracks connect forming
many-sided sharp-angled pieces that develop
into a pattern resembling the back of an
alligator or crocodile.
•Problem:  Indicator of structural
failure, cracks allow moisture
infiltration, roughness, may further
deteriorate to a pothole
•Possible Causes: Inadequate
structural support. A few of the
more common ones are listed here:
• Decrease in pavement load supporting
characteristics
• Loss of base, subbase or subgrade support
(e.g., poor drainage or spring thaw resulting in
a less stiff base). 
• Stripping on the bottom of the HMA layer (the
stripped portion contributes little to
pavement strength so the effective HMA
thickness decreases)
• Increase in loading (e.g., more or heavier loads
than anticipated in design)
• Inadequate structural design
• Poor construction (e.g., inadequate compaction)
• Repair: A fatigue cracked pavement should
be investigated to determine the root
cause of failure.  Any investigation should
involve digging a pit or coring the
pavement to determine the pavement's
structural design as well as determining
whether or not subsurface moisture is a
contributing factor.  Once the characteristic
alligator pattern is apparent, repair by crack
sealing is generally ineffective.  Fatigue
crack repair generally falls into one of two
categories:
• Small, localized fatigue cracking indicative of a loss of
subgrade support.  Remove the cracked pavement area
then dig out and replace the area of poor subgrade and
improve the drainage of that area if necessary.  Patch
over the repaired subgrade.
Cont..,

• Large fatigue cracked areas indicative of general

structural failure.  Place an HMA overlay over the
entire pavement surface.  This overlay must be
strong enough structurally to carry the anticipated
loading because the underlying fatigue cracked
pavement most likely contributes little or no
strength (Roberts et. al., 1996).
Bad fatigue cracking
Fatigue cracking from frost action
Fatigue cracking from edge failure
Bleeding

• Description: A film of asphalt binder on the

pavement surface.  It usually creates a shiny, glass-
like reflecting surface (as in the third photo) that
can become quite sticky. 
• Problem:  Loss of skid resistance when wet
• Possible Causes: Bleeding occurs when asphalt
binder fills the aggregate voids during hot weather
and then expands onto the pavement surface. 
Since bleeding is not reversible during cold weather,
asphalt binder will accumulate on the pavement
surface over time .
• This can be caused by one or a combination
of the following:
• Excessive asphalt binder in the HMA (either
due to mix design or manufacturing)
• Low HMA air void content (e.g., not enough
room for the asphalt to expand into during
hot weather)
• Repair: The following repair measures may
eliminate or reduce the asphalt binder film on the
pavement's surface but may not correct the
underlying problem that caused the bleeding:
• Minor bleeding can often be corrected by applying
coarse sand to blot up the excess asphalt binder.
• Major bleeding can be corrected by cutting off
excess asphalt with a motor grader or removing it
with a heater planer.  If the resulting surface is
excessively rough, resurfacing may be necessary .
 Heater planer
Mortor grader
Bleeding in Wheel Paths
Bleeding in wheelpaths
HMA bleeding from over-asphalting
3) Block Cracking
• Description: Interconnected cracks that divide the
pavement up into rectangular pieces.  Blocks range
in size from approximately 0.1 m2 (1 ft2) to 9 m2
(100 ft2).  Larger blocks are generally classified as
longitudinal and transverse cracking.  Block cracking
normally occurs over a large portion of pavement
area but sometimes will occur only in non-traffic
areas.
Cont..,

• Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness

• Possible Causes: HMA shrinkage and daily
temperature cycling.  Typically caused by an
inability of asphalt binder to expand and contract
with temperature cycles because of:
• Asphalt binder aging
• Poor choice of asphalt binder in the mix design
Cont..,

• Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and

extent of the block cracking:
• Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide).  Crack seal to
prevent (1) entry of moisture into the sub-grade
through the cracks and (2) further raveling of the
crack edges.  HMA can provide years of satisfactory
service after developing small cracks if they are kept
sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996).
• High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and cracks
with raveled edges).  Remove and replace the
cracked pavement layer with an overlay.
4) Corrugation and Shoving

• Description: A form of plastic movement typified by

ripples (corrugation) or an abrupt wave (shoving)
across the pavement surface.  The distortion is
perpendicular to the traffic direction.  Usually
occurs at points where traffic starts and stops
(corrugation) 
• Problem: Roughness
• Possible Causes: Usually caused by traffic action
(starting and stopping) combined with:
• An unstable (i.e. low stiffness) HMA layer (caused
by mix contamination, poor mix design, poor HMA
manufacturing)
• Excessive moisture in the sub grade
Cont..,

Repair: A heavily corrugated or shoved pavement

should be investigated to determine the root cause
of failure.  Repair strategies generally fall into one
of two categories: 
• Small, localized areas of corrugation or shoving. 
Remove the distorted pavement and patch. 
• Large corrugated or shoved areas indicative of
general HMA failure.  Remove the damaged
pavement and overlay.
5) Depression
• Description: Localized pavement surface areas with
slightly lower elevations than the surrounding
pavement.  Depressions are very noticeable after a
rain when they fill with water.
• Problem: Roughness, depressions filled with
substantial water can cause vehicle hydroplaning
• Possible Causes: Frost heave or sub-grade
settlement resulting from inadequate compaction
during construction.
• Repair: By definition, depressions are small
localized areas.  A pavement depression
should be investigated to determine the root
cause of failure (i.e., subgrade settlement or
frost heave).  Depressions should be repaired
by removing the affected pavement then
digging out and replacing the area of poor
subgrade.  Patch over the repaired subgrade.
6) Joint Reflection Cracking

• Description: Cracks in a flexible overlay of a rigid

pavement.  The cracks occur directly over the
underlying rigid pavement joints.  Joint reflection
cracking does not include reflection cracks that
occur away from an underlying joint .
• Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness
• Possible Causes: Movement of the PCC slab beneath the
HMA surface because of thermal and moisture changes. 
Generally not load initiated, however loading can fasten
deterioration.
• Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent
of the cracking: 
• Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent
cracks).  Crack seal to prevent (1) entry of moisture into
the sub-grade through the cracks and (2) further raveling
of the crack edges.  In general, rigid pavement joints will
eventually reflect through an HMA overlay without
proper surface preparation.
• High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and numerous
cracks).  Remove and replace the cracked pavement
layer with an overlay.
Joint reflection cracking on an
arterial
Joint reflection cracking close-up
7) Longitudinal Cracking

• Description: Cracks parallel to the pavement's centerline or

lay down direction.  Usually a type of fatigue cracking. 
• Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness, indicates
possible onset of alligator cracking and structural failure.
• Possible Causes:
Poor joint construction or location.  Joints are generally the
least dense areas of a pavement.  Therefore, they should be
constructed outside of the wheel path so that they are only
infrequently loaded. 
• A reflective crack from an underlying layer (not including joint
reflection cracking)
• HMA fatigue (indicates the onset of future alligator cracking)
• top-down cracking
• Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the
cracking:
• Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and
infrequent cracks).  Crack seal to prevent (1)
entry of moisture into the sub-grade through
the cracks and (2) further raveling of the crack
edges.  HMA can provide years of satisfactory
service after developing small cracks if they are
kept sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996).
• High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and
numerous cracks).  Remove and replace the
cracked pavement layer with an overlay.
Longitudinal cracking as the onset of
fatigue cracking
Longitudinal cracking from poor
joint construction
Longitudinal cracking from poor
joint construction
8) Patching
• Description: An area of pavement that has been replaced
with new material to repair the existing pavement.  A patch
is considered a defect no matter how well it performs.
• Problem: Roughness
• Possible Causes:
• Previous localized pavement deterioration that has been
removed and patched
• Repair: Patches are themselves a repair action.  The only
way they can be removed from a pavement's surface is by
either a structural or non-structural overlay.
9) Polished Aggregate

• Description: Areas of HMA pavement where the portion of

aggregate extending above the asphalt binder is either very
small or there are no rough or angular aggregate particles.
• Problem: Decreased skid resistance
• Possible Causes: Repeated traffic applications.  Generally, as
a pavement ages the protruding rough, angular particles
become polished.  This can occur quicker if the aggregate is
susceptible to abrasion or subject to excessive studded tire
wear.
• Repair: Apply a skid-resistant slurry seal .
5 years of wear
10) Potholes

• Description: Small, bowl-shaped depressions in the

pavement surface that penetrate all the way
through the HMA layer down to the base course. 
They generally have sharp edges and vertical sides
near the top of the hole.  Potholes are most likely to
occur on roads with thin HMA surfaces (25 to 50
mm (1 to 2 inches)) and seldom occur on roads with
100 mm (4 inch) or deeper HMA surfaces .
• Problem: Roughness (serious vehicular damage
can result from driving across potholes at higher
speeds), moisture infiltration
• Possible Causes: Generally, potholes are the end
result of alligator cracking.  As alligator cracking
becomes severe, the interconnected cracks
create small chunks of pavement, which can be
dislodged as vehicles drive over them.  The
remaining hole after the pavement chunk is
dislodged is called a pothole.
• Repair: In accordance with patching techniques.
Pothole
11) Raveling

• Description: The progressive disintegration of an HMA layer from the

surface downward as a result of the dislodgement of aggregate
particles. 
• Problem: Loose debris on the pavement, roughness, water collecting
in the raveled locations resulting in vehicle hydroplaning, loss of skid
resistance
• Possible Causes: Several including:
• Loss of bond between aggregate particles and the
asphalt binder as a result of:
• A dust coating on the aggregate particles that forces the
asphalt binder to bond with the dust rather than the
aggregate
• Aggregate Segregation.  If fine particles are missing from
the aggregate matrix, then the asphalt binder is only able
to bind the remaining coarse particles at their relatively
few contact points.
• Inadequate compaction during construction.  High
density is required to develop sufficient cohesion
within the HMA. 
• Mechanical dislodging by certain types of traffic (studded
tires) .
• Repair: A raveled pavement should be investigated
to determine the root cause of failure.  Repair
strategies generally fall into one of two categories:  
• Small, localized areas of raveling.  Remove the
raveled pavement and patch. 
• Large raveled areas indicative of general HMA
failure.  Remove the damaged pavement and
overlay.
Raveling
From segregation
12) RUTTING

• Description: Surface depression in the wheelpath. 

Pavement uplift (shearing) may occur along the sides of the
rut.  Ruts are particularly evident after a rain when they are
filled with water.  There are two basic types of rutting: mix
rutting and subgrade rutting. .
• Mix rutting occurs when the subgrade does not rut
yet the pavement surface exhibits wheelpath
depressions as a result of compaction/mix design
problems. 
• Subgrade rutting occurs when the subgrade exhibits
wheelpath depressions due to loading.  In this case,
the pavement settles into the subgrade ruts causing
surface depressions in the wheelpath
• Problem: Ruts filled with water can cause vehicle
hydroplaning, can be hazardous because ruts tend to pull a
vehicle towards the rut path as it is steered across the rut.
• Possible Causes: Permanent deformation in any of a
pavement's layers or subgrade usually caused by
consolidation or lateral movement of the materials due to
traffic loading.  Specific causes of rutting can be:
• Insufficient compaction of HMA layers during construction. 
If it is not compacted enough initially, HMA pavement may
continue to densify under traffic loads.
• Subgrade rutting (e.g., as a result of inadequate
pavement structure)
• Improper mix design or manufacture (e.g.,
excessively high asphalt content, excessive mineral
filler, insufficient amount of angular aggregate
particles)
• Repair: A heavily rutted pavement should be investigated to
determine the root cause of failure (e.g. insufficient
compaction, subgrade rutting, poor mix design or studded
tire wear).  Slight ruts (< 1/3 inch deep) can generally be left
untreated.  Pavement with deeper ruts should be leveled
and overlaid
Mix rutting
Mix rutting
Rutting from mix instability
13) Slippage Cracking
• Description: Crescent or half-moon shaped cracks generally
having two ends pointed into the direction of traffic.
• Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness
• Possible Causes: Braking or turning wheels cause the
pavement surface to slide and deform.  The resulting sliding
and deformation is caused by a low-strength surface mix or
poor bonding between the surface HMA layer and the next
underlying layer in the pavement structure.
• Repair: Removal and replacement of affected area.
14) Stripping
• Description: The loss of bond between
aggregates and asphalt binder that typically
begins at the bottom of the HMA layer and
progresses upward.  When stripping begins at
the surface and progresses downward it is
usually called raveling.  The third photo show
the surface effects of underlying stripping.
• Problem: Decreased structural support,
rutting, shoving/corrugations, raveling, or
cracking (alligator and longitudinal)
• Possible Causes: Bottom-up stripping is very difficult to recognize
because it manifests itself on the pavement surface as other forms of
distress including rutting, shoving/corrugations, raveling, or cracking. 
Typically, a core must be taken to positively identify stripping as a
pavement distress.
• Poor aggregate surface chemistry
• Water in the HMA causing moisture damage
• Overlays over an existing open-graded surface
course.  these overlays will tend to strip.
• Repair: A stripped pavement should be investigated
to determine the root cause of failure (i.e., how did
the moisture get in?). Generally, the stripped
pavement needs to be removed and replaced after
correction of any subsurface drainage issues.
 
15) Transverse (Thermal) Cracking
• Description: Cracks perpendicular to the
pavement's centerline or laydown direction. 
Usually a type of thermal cracking.
• Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness
• Possible Causes: Several including:
• Shrinkage of the HMA surface due to low
temperatures or asphalt binder hardening
• Reflective crack caused by cracks beneath the
surface HMA layer
• top-down cracking
• Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and
extent of the cracking:
• Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent
cracks).  Crack seal to prevent (1) entry of moisture
into the subgrade through the cracks and (2) further
raveling of the crack edges.  HMA can provide years
of satisfactory service after developing small cracks
if they are kept sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996).
• High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and numerous
cracks).  Remove and replace the cracked pavement
layer with an overlay