SEWAGE TREATMENT

CHAPTER FOUR : (PART TWO)

SECONDARY/BIOLOGICAL AND
TERTIARY WASTEWATER
TREATMENT
Waste Stabilization Pond
 Waste stabilization ponds (WSP) are alternatively known a sewage
lagoons and oxidation ponds.
 Waste stabilization pond (WSP) are large shallow earthen basins in
which raw sewage is treated by entirely natural processes for the
removal of solids and organic matter and the destruction of
pathogenic organisms.
 Waste stabilizations pond systems with total HRT of 15 - 62 days.
 The most effective and appropriate method of wastewater treatment
in warm climates where sufficient land is available and where the
temperature is most favorable for their operation.
CONT.
.
CONT.
.Advantages:
Simplicity
• Simple to Construct.
• Simple to Operate and Maintain.
• Only Unskilled Labor is Needed.
Low Cost
• Cheaper than other wastewater treatment processes.
• No need for expensive equipment.
High Efficiency
• BOD removals > 90%
• Total nitrogen removals is 70-90%.
• Total phosphorus removal is 30-45%.
• Efficient in removing pathogens.
 Type of WSP
 Anaerobic, Facultative and Maturation Ponds are The Three
Major Types of Pond in A WSP.
1. Anaerobic pond
2. Facultative pond
3. Maturation pond
1. Anaerobic pond
 3-5 m deep.
 Receive high organic loading (usually > 100 g BOD/m3 d).
 Contain no dissolved oxygen and no algae
 Primary function is BOD removal.
 TSS removal percentages range between 50 and 70%.
 HRT for ponds treating municipal sewage is between 1 - 3 days( 20
days for industrial application).
CONT
.
CONT.
 Require some preliminary treatment of municipal sewage
Screening
 It is recommended to add a fine screen to prevent the accumulation
of unsightly plastic, on the pond surface. The screens are to be raked
manually, and should be enough to prevent frequent clogging of the
screens.
Grit Channels
 It recommended to use grit for the removal of grit. Two Grit channels
are recommended. When one channel is in operation, the other one
can be manually, emptied.
Sludge Drying Beds
 The size of sludge drying bed is based on the accumulation of sludge
produced per year, i.e.
 Commonly sludge beds are loaded with 30cm of sludge per
drying cycle.
CONT
2. . Facultative pond
 1.5-2.5 m deep
 The HRT for ponds treating anaerobic effluent varies between 5 and
30 days.
 Most widely used for treatment of municipal wastewater.
 BOD values range from 20 to 60mg/l, while TSS levels vary from
30 to 150mg/l.
3. Maturation pond
 1-1.5 m deep
 It recommended to assume 25%BOD removal.
 Receive the effluent from a facultative pond.
 Primary function is the removal of pathogens.
 A retention time of between 5 and 20 days.
Removal of Pathogenic Microorganisms
 Pathogen removal occurs in anaerobic, facultative and
maturation ponds, but only maturation ponds are designed on the
basis of required removal rates for pathogens.
 In maturation ponds that the environmental conditions are
most harmful for pathogens.
 Pathogens present in municipal sewage four groups of pathogenic
micro-organism can be distinguished: bacteria, viruses, protozoa
and helminthes.
 Faecal coliforms are a group of bacteria that is commonly used as
an indicator for contamination with faecal material.
 Both helminth eggs and protozoan cysts are removed by
sedimentation.
 Their removal is therefore mostly affected by retention
time.
Physical Design of
Pond
WSPLocation:
 Located at least 200m (preferably 500m) downwind from
the community.
 Not be Located within 2km of airports, as any birds attracted to
the ponds may constitute a risk to air navigation.
 The site should be flat or gently sloping.
 The Soil must also be suitable.
Preliminary Treatment:
 Adequate screening and grit removal facilities must be installed.
 Adequate provision must be made for the hygienic disposal
of screenings and grit.
CONT
.Pond Geometry
 The most common shape is rectangular.
 In general, anaerobic and primary facultative ponds should be
rectangular, with length-to-breadth ratios of 2 – 3 to 1 so as to avoid
sludge banks forming near the inlet.
 Secondary facultative and maturation ponds should, wherever
possible, have higher length-to-breadth ratios (up to 10 to 1) so
that they better approximate plug flow conditions.
 For small ponds (under 1 ha in area) 0.5m freeboard should be
provided; for ponds between 1 ha and 3 ha, the freeboard should
be
0.5 - 1m, depending on site considerations.
CONT
Pond
. Configurations
 Configurations can includes either series or parallel operations.
 The advantages of series operation is improved treatment because
of
reduced short circuiting .
 The advantages of parallel configuration is that the loading
can be distributed more uniformly.
Inlet and Outlet Structures
 The inlet to anaerobic and primary facultative ponds should
discharge well below the liquid level so as to minimize
short- circuiting and thus reduce the quantity of scum.
 Inlets to secondary facultative and maturation ponds should also
discharge below the liquid level, preferably at mid-depth in order
to reduce the possibility of short-circuiting.
 The outlet of all ponds should be protected against the discharge
of scum by the provision of a scum guard.
Process Design of WSP
Effluent Quality Requirements
 The more important of these for WSP design are as
follows:

Design Parameters
 The four most important parameters for WSP design are
temperature, net evaporation, flow and BOD. Faecal coliform and
helminth egg numbers are also important if the final effluent is to be
used in agriculture or aquaculture.
Temperature and Net Evaporation: The usual design temperature is
the mean air temperature in the coolest month. The net evaporation
rates in the months used for selection of the design temperatures are
CONT
Flow:
. A suitable design value is 80 percent of the in-house
water consumption.
BOD: The BOD may be measured using 24-hour flow-weighted
composite samples.
 If wastewater does not yet exist, it should be estimated from the
following equation

 Values of B vary between 30 and 70g/c/d,

CONT
. aecal Coliforms: are important if the pond effluent is to be used
F
for unrestricted crop irrigation or for fishpond fertilization.
 The usual range is 107- 108faecal coliforms per 100 ml, and a
suitable design value is 5*107 per 100 ml.
Helminth Eggs: important when pond effluents are used for restricted
crop irrigation (irrigation of all crops except salads and vegetables
eaten uncooked) or fishpond fertilization.
 The usual range is 100 - 1000 eggs per liter.
Operation and Maintenance of WSPs
WSP start-up:
 Before commissioning a WSP system, any vegetation growing in
the empty ponds must be removed.
 filled initially with fresh surface water or groundwater to permit
the development of the required algal and heterotrophic bacterial
 CONT
. If freshwater isn’t available, then the facultative pond can be filled
with raw wastewater and allowed to rest in batch mode for 3−4 weeks
to allow the microbial populations to develop.
 The anaerobic ponds are then loaded gradually up to their design load
over a period of 2 − 4 weeks.
 The pH of the anaerobic pond has to be maintained at around 7 − 7.5
during the start-up to allow for the methanogenic archaeal
populations to develop. If the pH falls below 7 during this period,
lime should be added to correct it.
Routine Maintenance
The main routine maintenance activities are:
 Removal of screenings and grit from the preliminary treatment units.
 Periodically cutting the grass on the pond embankments
CONT
. Removal of scum and floating from the surface of facultative ponds

and maturation ponds. This is done to maximize the light energy
reaching the pond algae, increase surface re-aeration, and prevent
fly and mosquito breeding.
 If flies are breeding in large numbers on the scum on
anaerobic ponds, the scum should be broken up and sunk with
a water jet
 Removal of any material blocking the pond inlets and outlets.
 Repair of any damage to the embankments caused by rodents
or
rabbits (or other burrowing animals)
 Repair of any damage to fences and gates.
Desludging and Sludge Disposal
 Anaerobic ponds required desludged when they are one third full of
sludge (by volume).This occurred every n years where n is given
CONT.
CONT
.Anaerobic Ponds
Designed without risk of odour & nuisance on the basis of volumetric
BOD loading (λv, g/m3/d), which is given by:
𝐶𝑖𝑄
λv =
𝑉
Where Ci = influent BOD concentration, mg/l
Q = flow, m³/d, V = anaerobic pond volume, m³
The permissible design value of λv increases with
temperature
CONT
. The mean hydraulic retention time in the pond (θ, d) is

determined from:
θ =𝑉𝑄
 Retention times in anaerobic ponds < 1 day
should not be used.
Facultative Ponds
 It is recommended that they be designed on the basis of surface
BOD loading(λS,kg/ha/d), which is given by:
10𝐿𝑖𝑄
λS= 𝐴𝑓 Where Af= facultative pond area, m²
 The variation of permissible design value for λS
with latitude
λS = 375- 6.25L Where L =
latitude,
 The earliest relationship between λS and T is that given
CONT.
 However, a more appropriate global design equation was given
λS=𝟑𝟓𝟎(𝟏. 𝟏𝟎𝟕 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝑻)𝑻−𝟐𝟓
 Its retention time (θ𝑓 d) from:
𝐴𝑓
θ𝑓 = 𝑄
𝑄𝑚
Where: D = pond depth, m (usually 1.5m), Qm = mean flow, m3/day
 The mean flow is the mean of the influent and effluent flows
(𝑄𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑒), the latter being the former less net evaporation
and seepage.
𝐴𝑓 𝑄
θ𝑓 =1
2(𝑄 𝑖 − 𝑄 𝑒 )
 If seepage is negligible, Qe is given
by:
𝑄𝑓 =𝑄𝑖 −
0.001𝐴𝑓e
CONT.
. θ𝑓 = 2𝐴 𝑓 𝐷
(2𝑄 𝑖 −0.001𝐴 𝑓 𝑒 )

A minimum value of θ𝑓 of 5 days should be adopted for temperatures

below 20°C, and 4days for temperatures above 20°C.
Maturation Ponds
i. Faecal Coliform Removal
The resulting equation for a single pond is
thus: Ne = Ni / (1 + kT*HRT)
Where
Ne = number of FC per 100 mL of
effluent
Ni = number of FC per 100 mL of influent
kT = first order rate constant for FC removal, per day
t = retention time, day
CONT..
 for a series of anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds,
equation becomes:
Ni
Ne
 1 KT t 1  KT t f (1 KT n

Ne and Ni tnow
m ) refer to the numbers of FC per 100 mL of the

a

final effluent and raw wastewater

Where:
Ne = number of feacal coliform per 100 ml effluent
Ni = number of feacal coliform per 100 ml
influent kT = first order temperature dependent
rate (day-1)
n = number of maturation ponds (each pond the same hydraulic retention
rate)
CONT.
.  A series of n maturation ponds should have total HRT of 5 days.
 The value of kT is highly temperature dependent.
kT = 2.6 (1.19)T-20
 Values of the kT for faecal coliform removal at
various temperatures
CONT.
.ii. Helminth Egg Removal
 the following relationship which is equally valid for
anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds:
R = 100 [1 – 0.14exp (−0.38θ)] 4.60
Where R = percentage egg removal
θ = retention time, d
The equation corresponding to the lower 95% confidence limit
of equation is:
R = 100[(1 – 0.41exp (−0.49θ + 0.0085θ)]
CONT.
. Design values of helminth egg removal (R %) for hydraulic

retention times (θ).
CONT.
iii.
. Nutrient Removal
 present equations for ammonical nitrogen (NH3+ andNH4+) removal
in individual facultative and maturation ponds. Their equation for
temperatures below 20°C is:
CONT.
.  An equation for the removal of total nitrogen in
individual facultative and maturation ponds:

iv. Phosphorus
 There are no design equations for phosphorus removal in WSP.
 if BOD removal in a pond system in 90 percent, the removal
of total phosphorus is around 45%. Effluent total P is around
two- thirds inorganic and one third organic.
Hydraulic Balance
 To maintain the liquid level in the ponds, the inflow must be at least
greater than net evaporation and seepage at all times.
Qi≥ 0.001A ∗ (e + s)
Where Qi = inflow to first pond, m3/d
A = total area of pond series, m2
e = net evaporation (i.e. evaporation less rainfall),
mm/d s = seepage, mm/d
 Seepage losses must be at least smaller than the inflow less net
evaporation so as to maintain the water level in the pond. The
maximum permissible permeability of the soil layer making up the
pond base can be determined from Darcy’s law:
CONT.
.
CONT.
.If the permeability of the soil is more than the maximum permissible,
the pond must be lined. A variety of lining materials is available and
local costs dictate which should be used. The following interpretations
may be placed on values obtained for the in situ coefficient of
permeability:
 - k > 10-6 m/s: the soil is too permeable and the ponds must be lined
 - k > 10-7m/s: some seepage may occur but not sufficiently to
prevent the ponds
from filling
 - k < 10-8 m/s: the ponds will seal naturally
 - k < 10-9 m/s: there is no risk of groundwater contamination
 - (If k > 10-9 m/s and the groundwater is used for potable supplies,
further detailed
hydrogeological studies may be required).
Tertiary Treatment Processes
 The purpose TTP to provide a final treatment stage to raise the
effluent quality before it is discharged to the receiving environment
(sea, river, lake, ground, etc.).
May be used at any treatment plant. If disinfection is practiced, it is
always the final process. It is also called effluent polishing.
i. Filtration
 Sand filtration removes much of the residual suspended matter
Filtration over activated carbon, also called carbon
adsorption, removes residual toxins
ii. Lagooning
 Lagooning provides settlement and further biological
improvement
through storage in large manmade ponds or lagoons.
CONT..
iii. Nutrient removal
 Excessive release to the environment can lead to a buildup of
nutrients, called eutrophication, which can in turn encourage the
overgrowth of weeds, algae, and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae).
 To causing deoxygenation, some algal species produce toxins
that contaminate drinking water supplies.
iv. Nitrogen removal
 The removal of nitrogen is effected through the biological
oxidation of nitrogen from ammonia to nitrate (nitrification),
followed by denitrification, the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas.
 Nitrogen gas is released to the atmosphere and thus removed
from the water.
CONT.
v.
. Phosphorus removal
 Phosphorus removal is important as it is a limiting nutrient for algae
growth in many fresh water systems.
 Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a process called enhanced
biological phosphorus removal.
vi. Disinfection
 The purpose of disinfection in the treatment of waste water is to
substantially reduce the number of microorganisms in the water to be
discharged back into the environment.
 The effectiveness of disinfection depends on the quality of the
water being treated
 Ultraviolet (UV) light can be used instead of chlorine, iodine, or
other chemicals.
 Ozone (O3) is generated by passing oxygen (O2) through a high
voltage potential resulting in a third oxygen atom becoming
attached and forming O3.
CONT.
.vii. Odour Control
 Large process plants in urban areas will often treat the odours with
carbon reactors, a contact media with bio-slimes, small doses of
chlorine, or circulating fluids to biologically capture and
metabolize the obnoxious gases.
 Other methods of odour control exist, including addition of iron
salts, hydrogen peroxide, calcium nitrate, etc.
Example
1. Design a waste stabilization pond to treat 10,000 m3/day of a
wastewater which has a BOD of 350 mg/L and 1x108 FC per 100 mL.
The effluent should contain no more than 1000 FC per 100 mL and 20
mg/L BOD. The design temperature is 18oC.
Solution
Given
Required Design
Q= 10,000 m3/day - Aerobic WS Pond
Ci( influent BOD) = 350 mg/L - Maturated WS Pond
FC= 1x108 FC per 100 -Facultative WS Pond
mL
effluent =1000 FC per 100 mL
effluent BOD = 20 mg/L
BOD T= 18oC.
CONT.
.(a) Anaerobic Ponds
 From Table the design loading is given
by:
= 20T–100 = (20 x 18)-100 = 260 g/m3d
 The pond volume is given by equation (1)
as: V= CiQ/ s
= 350 x 10,000/260 = 13,462 m3
 The retention time is given by equation
as:

t a  va / Q

= 13,462 /10,000 = 1.35 day

 The BOD removal is given in Table as:
CONT.
.(b) Facultative Ponds
The design loading is given by equation as:
s max = 350 (1.107 – 0.002T)T-25
= 350 (1.107 – 0.002T)T-25
= 350[1.107 – (0.002 x 18)]18-25
= 216 kg/ha d
CONT.
Thus
. the area is given by equation as:
s = 10LiQ / Af
Af = 10 x 0.44 x 350 x
10,000/216
= 71,300 m2
The retention time is given by equation as:
tf = AfD/Q
Taking a depth of 1.5 m, this becomes:
tf = 71,300 x 1.5/10,000
= 10.7 day
CONT..
(c ) Maturation Ponds
Faecal Coliform Removal
For 18oC the value of kT is given by equation
as: kT = 2.6 (1.19)T-20 = 2.6(1.19) -2 = 1.84 day-1
The value of Ne is given by equation :
Ni
N e  1  K T t a 1  K t(1  K T t m )n


Taking tm = 7 days, this becomes:
T
f
108
Ne 
1  1.841.351  1.8410.7 (1  1.84
For n =7)1,n Ne = 99957 > 1000 FC/100
mL For n = 2, Ne = 7201 > 1000 FC/100
mL
 CONT..
For a depth of 1.5 m, the area of the maturation pond is
Am = Q tm /D
= 10,000 x 7/1.5
= 46,667 m2
BOD Removal
Anaerobic Pond: li = 0.44 x 350 mg/L = 154 mg/L
Facultative and Maturation Pond:
K  0.3x1.0518 20  0.272 / day
1(18)
le  li

1  K1 t f 1  K1 mt
n

le   154
1  0.27210.7 1  0.272 =1.6 mg/L