Strength of Materials

Axial Load
In this chapter we will discuss how to determine the deformation of these
members, and we will also develop a method for finding the support reactions
when these reactions cannot be determined strictly from the equations of
equilibrium. An analysis of the effects of thermal stress, stress concentrations,
inelastic deformations, and residual stress will also be discussed.
Saint-Venant’s Principle
Stress and strain produced at points in a body
sufficiently removed from the region of load
application will be the same as the stress and
strain produced by any applied loadings that
have the same statically equivalent resultant,
and are applied to the body within the same
region.
Elastic Deformation of an Axially Loaded Member
Using Hooke’s law and the definitions
of stress and strain, we will now
develop an equation that can be used to
determine the elastic displacement of a
member subjected to axial loads. To
generalize the development, consider a
bar, which has a cross-sectional area that
gradually varies along its length L. The
bar is subjected to concentrated loads at
its ends and a variable external load
distributed along its length.

Provided the stress does not exceed the proportional limit, we can apply
Hooke’s law; i.e.,
For the entire length L of the bar, we must integrate this expression to find.
This yields

where
d = displacement of one point on the bar relative to the other point
L = original length of bar
P(x) = internal axial force at the section, located a distance x from one end
A(x) = cross-sectional area of the bar, expressed as a function of x
E = modulus of elasticity for the material
Constant Load and Cross-Sectional Area. In many cases the bar will have a
constant cross-sectional area A; and the material will be homogeneous, so E is
constant. Furthermore, if a constant external force is applied at each end, then
the internal force P throughout the length of the bar is also constant. As a
result, the equation of deformation can be integrated to yield:

If the bar is subjected to several different axial forces along its length, or the
cross-sectional area or modulus of elasticity changes abruptly from one region
of the bar to the next, the above equation can be applied to each segment of
the bar where these quantities remain constant. The displacement of one end
of the bar with respect to the other is then found from the algebraic addition of
the relative displacements of the ends of each segment. For this general case,
Sign Convention.
In order to apply aforementioned equations, we must develop a sign
convention for the internal axial force and the displacement of one end of the
bar with respect to the other end. To do so, we will consider both the force
and displacement to be positive if they cause tension and elongation,
respectively; whereas a negative force and displacement will cause
compression and contraction, respectively.
Procedure for Analysis

Internal Force
• Use the method of sections to determine the internal axial force P within
the member.
• If this force varies along the member’s length due to an external distributed
loading, a section should be made at the arbitrary location x from one end
of the member and the force represented as a function of x, i.e., P(x).
• If several constant external forces act on the member, the internal force in
each segment of the member, between any two external forces, must be
determined.
• For any segment, an internal tensile force is positive and an internal
compressive force is negative. For convenience, the results of the internal
loading can be shown graphically by constructing the normal-force
diagram.
 Displacement.
• When the member’s cross-sectional area varies along its length, the area
must be expressed as a function of its position x, i.e., A(x).
• If the cross-sectional area, the modulus of elasticity, or the internal loading
suddenly changes, the total displacement is equal to the displacement of
each segment for which these quantities are constant.
• When substituting the data into displacement equations, be sure to account
for the proper sign for the internal force P. Tensile loadings are positive
and compressive loadings are negative. Also, use a consistent set of units.
For any segment, if the result is a positive numerical quantity, it indicates
elongation; if it is negative, it indicates a contraction.
EXAMPLE.
The steel bar shown below is made from two segments having cross-sectional
areas of A1= 650mm2 and A2 = 2580mm2. Determine the vertical displacement
of end A and the displacement of B relative to C.
Est = 200 GPa.
Solution:
EXAMPLE.
The assembly shown below consists of an aluminum tube AB having a cross-
sectional area of 400mm2. A steel rod having a diameter of 10 mm is attached
to a rigid collar and passes through the tube. If a tensile load of 80 kN is
applied to the rod, determine the displacement of the end C of the rod. Take Est
= 200 GPa, Eal = 70 GPa.
Solution:

The displacement of end C with respect to end B (steel rod ) is:

The displacement of end B with respect to the fixed end A (aluminum tube ) is:
EXAMPLE.
Rigid beam AB rests on the two short posts shown below. AC is made of steel
and has a diameter of 20 mm, and BD is made of aluminum and has a
diameter of 40 mm. Determine the displacement of point F on AB if a vertical
load of 90kN is applied over this point. Take Est = 200 GPa, Eal = 70 GPa.
Solution:

The displacement of the top of post AC is:

The displacement of the top of post BD is:

EXAMPLE.
A member is made from a material that has a specific weight ( g = 7850kg/m3)
and modulus of elasticity E=200GPa. If it is in the form of a cone having the
dimensions shown below, determine how far its end is displaced due to gravity
when it is suspended in the vertical position.
Solution:

The displacement of the top of post AC is:

Principle of Superposition
The principle of superposition is often used to determine the stress or
displacement at a point in a member when the member is subjected to a
complicated loading. By subdividing the loading into components, the
principle of superposition states that the resultant stress or displacement at the
point can be determined by algebraically summing the stress or displacement
caused by each load component applied separately to the member.
The following two conditions must be satisfied if the principle of
superposition is to be applied.
1. The loading must be linearly related to the stress or displacement that is to
be determined.
2. The loading must not significantly change the original geometry or
configuration of the member.
Statically Indeterminate Axially Loaded Member

A structure is statically indeterminate when the static

equilibrium equations are insufficient for determining the
internal forces and reactions on that structure.
For the bar shown in the figure, which is fixed supported
at both of its ends. From the free-body diagram,
equilibrium requires:

the
This equilibrium equation is not sufficient to determine
the two reactions on the bar.
In order to establish an additional equation needed for
solution, it is necessary to consider how points on the bar
displace. Specifically, an equation that specifies the
conditions for displacement is referred to as a
compatibility or kinematic condition.
In this case, a suitable compatibility condition would require the displacement
of one end of the bar with respect to the other end to be equal to zero, since the
end
supports are fixed. Hence, the compatibility condition becomes:

Thus, solving the equilibrium equation and compatibility

equation simultaneously, the reactions at A and B can be
determined
EXAMPLE.
The steel rod shown below has a diameter of 10 mm. It is fixed to the wall at
A, and before it is loaded, there is a gap of 0.2 mm between the wall at B’ and
the rod. Determine the reactions at A and B’ if the rod is subjected to an axial
force of P = 20kN as shown. Neglect the size of the collar at C. Take
Est=200GPa
Solution:

Solving Eqs. 1 and 2 yields

EXAMPLE.
The aluminum post shown below is reinforced with a brass core. If this
assembly supports an axial compressive load of P = 40 kN applied to the rigid
cap, determine the average normal stress in the aluminum and the brass. Take
Eal=70GPa and Ebr=100GPa.
Solution:

Solving Eqs. 1 and 2 yields

EXAMPLE.
The three A-36 steel bars shown in the figure below are pin connected to a
rigid member. If the applied load on the member is 15 kN, determine the force
developed in each bar. Bars AB and EF each have a cross-sectional area of
50mm2 and bar CD has a cross-sectional area of 30mm2
Solution:

Solving Eqs. 1, 2 and 3 yields

EXAMPLE.
The bolt shown below is made of aluminum alloy and is tightened so it
compresses a cylindrical tube made of magnesium alloy. The tube has an outer
radius of 12.5mm and it is assumed that both the inner radius of the tube and
the radius of the bolt are 6.3mm. The washers at the top and bottom of the
tube are considered to be rigid and have a negligible thickness. Initially the nut
is hand tightened snugly; then, using a wrench, the nut is further tightened
one-half turn. If the bolt has threads with spacing of 1.25mm, determine the
stress in the bolt. Take Eal=45GPa and Em=73GPa.
Solution:

Solving Eqs. 1and 2 yields

The Force Method of Analysis for Axially Loaded Members

This method of solution is often referred to as

the flexibility or force method of analysis. To
show how it is applied, consider a bar shown
in the figure. If we choose the support at B as
“redundant” and temporarily remove its
effect on the bar, then the bar will become
statically determinate.
If load P causes B to be displaced downward
by an amount dP, the reaction FB must
displace end B of the bar upward by an
amount such that no displacement occurs at B
when the two loadings are superimposed.
Thus,
EXAMPLE.
The steel rod shown below has a diameter of 10 mm. It is fixed to the wall at
A, and before it is loaded, there is a gap of 0.2 mm between the wall at B’ and
the rod. Determine the reactions at A and B’ if the rod is subjected to an axial
force of P = 20kN as shown. Neglect the size of the collar at C. Take
Est=200GPa
Thermal Stress

A change in temperature can cause a body to change its dimensions.

Generally, if the temperature increases, the body will expand, whereas if the
temperature decreases, it will contract. Ordinarily this expansion or
contraction is linearly related to the temperature increase or decrease that
occurs. If this is the case, and the material is homogeneous and isotropic, it
has been found from experiment that the displacement of a member having a
length L can be calculated using the formula

where
a = a property of the material, referred to as the linear coefficient of thermal
expansion. The units measure strain per degree of temperature 1/C (Celsius).
DT = the algebraic change in temperature of the member
L = the original length of the member
dT = the algebraic change in the length of the member
EXAMPLE.
The steel bar shown below is constrained to just fit between two fixed
supports when T1 = 16 C. If the temperature is raised to T2= 50 C,
determine the average normal thermal stress developed in the bar.
E=200GPa and
Solution:

Rearranging
EXAMPLE.
The rigid beam shown below is fixed to the top of the three posts made of
steel and aluminum. The posts each have a length of 250 mm when no load is
applied to the beam, and the temperature is T1 = 20C. Determine the force
supported by each post if the bar is subjected to a uniform distributed load of
150 kN/m and the temperature is raised to T2= 80C. Est=200GPa, Eal=73GPa
and
Solution:

Rearranging:

Solving Eqs. 1and 2 yields

EXAMPLE.
An aluminum tube having a cross-sectional area of 600 mm 2 is used as a
sleeve for a steel bolt having a cross-sectional area of 400 mm 2. When the
temperature is T1 = 15°C, the nut holds the assembly in a snug position such

that the axial force in the bolt is negligible. If the temperature increases to T2

= 80°C, determine the force in the bolt and sleeve. Est=200GPa, Eal=73GPa
and
Solution:

Using Eq. 1 and solving gives

Stress Concentrations

It was pointed out earlier that when an axial force is applied to a member, it
creates a complex stress distribution within the localized region of the point
of load application. Not only do complex stress distributions arise just under
a concentrated loading, they can also arise at sections where the member’s
cross-sectional area changes.
In both of these cases, force equilibrium requires the magnitude of the
resultant force developed by the stress distribution to be equal to P.

In engineering practice, the actual stress distributions do not have to be

determined. Instead, only the maximum stress at these sections must be
known, and the member is then designed to resist this stress when the axial
load P is applied. Specific values of this maximum normal stress can be
determined by experimental methods or by advanced mathematical
techniques using the theory of elasticity. The results of these investigations
are usually reported in graphical form using a stress-concentration factor K.
We define K as a ratio of the maximum stress to the average normal stress
acting at the cross section; i.e.,

Provided K is known, and the average normal stress has been calculated from
savg = P/A, where A is the smallest cross-sectional area,
Specific values of K can be obtained from the below graphs
Inelastic Axial Deformation

Sometimes, a member may be designed so that the loading causes the material
to yield and thereby permanently deform. Such members are often made from
a highly ductile metal such as annealed low-carbon steel having a stress–strain
diagram that is similar to that of the figure below. A material that exhibits this
behavior is referred to as being elastic perfectly plastic or elastoplastic.
Residual Stress

If an axially loaded member or group of such members forms a statically

indeterminate system that can support both tensile and compressive loads, then
excessive external loadings, which cause yielding of the material, will create
residual stresses in the members when the loads are removed.
Questions?