Part IV- Content

Specific Instruction
Chapter 9 Democratic Citizenship
Chapter 10 History
Chapter 11 Geography
Chapter 12 The Other Social Sciences and Topics of Special Interest
Chapter 9
Democratic Citizenship
Chapter Content
 1- Democratic Citizenship: The first goal of Social Studies
• 1.1- Citizenship Education and Diversity
• 1.2- Research on Citizenship Education
 2- Competing Perspectives on Citizenship Education
 3- Citizenship Education Content
• 3.1- Teaching the Electoral Process
 4-Citizenship Education: Values
• 4.1- Teaching Democratic Values: A Model and an Example
 5- Citizenship Education: Processes
• 5.1- Service Learning
• 5.2- Citizenship and Classroom management
 6- Summary of key points
Introduction
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tuGzO0qK0Tk
1- Democratic Citizenship: The first goal of Social
Studies

 Good citizenship is widely recognized as the most important goal of social studies
 The definition of social studies adopted by the National Council for the Social
Studies (NCSS) states "the primary purpose of social studies is to help young people
develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as
citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world"
 The type of citizenship we are concerned with is broader than legal status as a
citizen.
 Citizenship refers to our public life, and is not limited to political activity
 The National Standards for Civics and Government define this as "civic life," in
which individuals are concerned with the "affairs of the community and nation, that
is, the public realm"
1- Democratic Citizenship: The first goal
of Social Studies
 Democratic citizenship refers to civic life in a free society wherein decisions are
reached in an open and deliberative process. The key is while the "majority
rules, "the basic rights of any minority are protected
 Civics and government are the two social science disciplines at the heart of
citizenship education.
 Civics covers "the rights and responsibilities of citizens and their relationship to
one another and to the government," whereas instruction in government focuses
on "political and legal institutions“
 In elementary school, students should learn about how rules are made,
enforced, and interpreted in families, at school, in the classroom, and at the
local, state, national, and international levels. Instruction focusing on the
functioning of legal systems is called law-related education (LRE), and several
lessons and units have been produced to accomplish the goals of LRE
1- Democratic Citizenship: The first goal
of Social Studies
 Recently, many authorities in the field of social studies have become
concerned about the decline in citizenship education in K-12 schools
 Civics has taken a backseat to reading and math, leading to the decline in
civic knowledge
 Despite these trends, citizenship education should be a primary focus of
elementary social studies
1.1- Citizenship Education and Diversity

 Citizenship education must provide for unification and celebrate diversity

at the same time!
 The values, principles, and beliefs of a democratic way of life are the
unifying elements of every country.
 The National Standards for Civics and Government summarize how the
democratic ideal binds us as citizens: “Citizens are united by the values,
principles, and beliefs they share rather than by ethnicity, race, religion,
class, language, gender, or national origin"
 When students become committed to our democratic system of
government, democratic values and beliefs, and democratic civic life,
they become good citizens.
1.1- Citizenship Education and Diversity

 The NCSS Curriculum Guidelines for Multicultural Education makes this same
point:
 There is, after all, a set of overarching values that all groups within a society
or nation endorse to maintain societal cohesion. In our nation, these core
values stem from our commitment to human dignity, and include justice,
equality, freedom, and due process of law
1.1- Citizenship Education and Diversity
 At the same time, citizenship education is education for diversity. Our units
of study in social studies should help students learn about the many facets of
pluralism in the nation.
 One of the strengths of a democratic system is that it makes diversity in
language, culture, religion, nationality, and political philosophy
inevitable.
 Students should see diversity not as a threat to our way of life, but rather a
part of the nation that has always existed and will exist in the future
1.2- Research on Citizenship Education
 Janet Alleman and Jere Brophy (2006) concluded the "studies focusing on
elementary students, and especially primary students, have little or nothing
to say about children's ideas about democracy or democratic government"
 Some interesting research has been conducted on what students know and
think about government and civics, and how these topics are presented in
textbooks.
 Children do understand rules and laws are a necessary part of life; they
tend, however, to see government primarily as a provider of what people
need, rather than as an enforcer of the rules (Alleman & Brophy, 2006;
Berti, 2005).
 Alleman and Brophy's (2002a) study of children's understanding of the U.S.
presidency revealed that K-3 students know little about the government and
their ideas about the presidency center on material items, such as a big house
and a limousine, rather than what the president does
1.2- Research on Citizenship Education
 The researchers thought, 'however, the books did not provide enough
information to help students learn the full range of civic options available to
citizens of the United States.
 We could evaluate the social studies textbooks in our school to determine
whether or not they promote "passive" citizenship, where good citizens
limit their activities to staying informed and voting; or an "active"
citizenship, in which good citizens lobby public officials, perform
community service, and, when necessary, take part in public protests.
2- Competing Perspectives on Citizenship Education

 Authorities have proffered several perspectives on precisely what

citizenship education should try to accomplish.
 Anderson and colleagues ( 1997) conducted a study of how elementary and
secondary teachers define citizenship education. They found "four coherent,
identifiable, and separate viewpoints on citizenship education"
Why this area of social studies is controversial:

1- Some teachers adopt a critical thinking perspective. These teachers believe

citizenship education should help students question the status quo, develop critical
thinking and questioning skills, and encourage open-mindedness and tolerance.
2- Other teachers hold a legalist perspective. They believe citizenship education
should stress obedience to laws, teach the basic structure of our political system, and
inform students of their rights and responsibilities.
3- Teachers who have a cultural pluralism perspective define citizenship education
as the celebration of diversity and pluralism. These teachers believe that rather than
teach the basic structure of our political institutions, citizenship education should
expose students to a range of ideologies.
4- Finally, some teachers adhere to an assimilationist perspective, which is similar
to the views of the legalists. Assimilationist teachers, however, explicitly reject current
ideas of "political correctness" and want to transmit to students the dominant values
of our society / (assimilationist: a person who advocates or participates in racial or
cultural integration)
2- Competing Perspectives on Citizenship Education/
"transmission versus transformation"

 another way to look at the competing views on citizenship education is to

examine the "transmission versus transformation" debate (Stanley,
2005).
 This crystallizes one of the more controversial issues in social studies. Simply
put, should teachers limit citizenship education to how government
functions, and should their definition of a good citizen be a person who
follows the rules and votes (transmission)? Or should teachers teach students
how to analyze social conditions and then take action to bring about change
(transformation)?
 To paraphrase Parker (2008), should citizenship education be limited to
"knowing" democratic things, or should it also include "doing" democratic
things ?
2- Competing Perspectives on Citizenship
Education/ "transmission versus transformation"

 The transmission model is adopted by the legalists and assimilationists

described by Anderson and colleagues. Teachers help students understand
the structure and function of local, state, and federal government. Students
learn about the rights and responsibilities of citizenship and are encouraged
to participate in nonthreatening civic activities, such as working on
political campaigns, staying informed, and voting.
 The transformation model is the model used by teachers who have both
the critical thinking and the cultural pluralist perspectives described by
Anderson and colleagues. Advocates of this model want a curriculum that
encourages students to make decisions and take action related to the
concept, issue, or problem being studied.
2- Competing Perspectives on Citizenship Education

 Jennings and colleagues provide specific suggestions for how to implement

"transformational social studies:
1. we should see our classrooms as places where students can learn about "social
relationships, reciprocity, power, and community." This means we should encourage
students to analyze how things do or do not work, and make suggestions for improvement.

2. the curriculum should present students with historical problem-solving situations

focusing on historical "dilemmas of justice,'' such as those faced by the abolitionists and
advocates for child labor laws.
3. we should encourage students to express their own opinions, not just to restate the
positions of others.
4. the authors argue, we should teach students the dynamic relationship between pluralism
and unity in our constitutional system.
5. teachers should plan for students to participate in social action projects to convince them
of "the power inherent within cooperative efforts against injustice"
2- Competing Perspectives on Citizenship Education/
Example for how to implement "transformational
social studies:
 One of the most impressive social action projects took place in an
elementary school classroom. Barbara Vogel, a fifth-grade teacher in Aurora,
Colorado, had completed a unit with her students on slavery in American
history.
 Shortly thereafter, Associated Press writer Karin Davies completed a story on
the slave trade existing in the late 1990s in Sudan.
 The story ran in a local newspaper, and one of Ms. Vogel's students, Kyle
Vincent, decided something should be done to stop slavery in Sudan.
2- Competing Perspectives on Citizenship Education/
Example for how to implement "transformational social
studies:

 The slave trade in Sudan was the result of civil war as local militias, who
fought without pay for the Sudanese government, made captives their slaves.
 International organizations were able to purchase the freedom of some of
the enslaved people. Ms. Vogel's class began to raise money, originally
collecting coins in jars.
 This social action project received national media coverage, and eventually
large donations began to arrive.
 By the end of 1998, the project had raised more than $50,000. The money
was donated to international organizations and was used to free more than
1,000 enslaved people in Sudan.
3- Citizenship Education Content
 Citizenship education has three components: content, values, and
processes.
 The content is the knowledge students should acquire to be effective citizens,
and they need to know a great deal in the fields of civics and government. For most
of us, our district curriculum guide and social studies textbooks cover these topics at
every grade level.
 If our district's social studies program follows the expanded horizons format, then:
• kindergartners, first graders, and second graders focus on families, classrooms, and schools
• third graders look at civic life in their cities
• fourth graders study the government of their state
• fifth graders learn about the federal government
• sixth graders examine governments of ancient cultures or foreign nations.
3- Citizenship Education Content/ 5 questions

 The National Standards for Civics and Government (Center for Civic
Education, 1994) provide a specific description of the civic knowledge our
students should acquire. The standards organize content under five
questions: 
 1. What is government, and what should it do? Our students should be
able to provide a basic description of government. For example, students
should know how rules are made, enforced, and interpreted. Students should
have some understanding of the types of legislatures that exist (e.g., school
boards, city councils). They should become familiar with courts of law. They
should learn about executives, such as their principal, the mayor, and the
president. It is important that students see why government is necessary and
what life would be like without it.
3- Citizenship Education Content/ 5 questions

 2. What are the basic values and principles of Nation democracy? As a

knowledge goal, we want students to describe the important values and principles
of our system of government and civic life.
 3. How does the government established by the Constitution embody the
purposes, values, and principles of American democracy? Elementary students
should know what their Country Constitution is and the important ideas in it.
Most social studies programs save most of this material until fifth grade. An
important topic that should be explored before fifth grade is how the Constitution
and the federal government protect individual rights.
• Third grade has usually been the place where students study municipal
government.
• By the end of fourth grade, the national standards state students should know
what services their local government provides, how the services are funded, and
how people can participate in local government.
3- Citizenship Education Content/ 5 questions

 4. What is the relationship of their nation to other nations and to

world affairs? The national standards call for students in grades K-4 to
develop knowledge in several international areas. Students should
understand the concept of nation. One concept students can begin to
understand is the interdependence of nations. They should be able to
identify cultural exchanges (e.g., music from another nation), trade (products
grown or manufactured in other nations), and military linkages
(multinational military operations). Students should learn about examples of
how nations solve problems peacefully.
 5. What are the roles of the citizen in their nation’s democracy?
Students are expected to know the definition of citizenship, how people
become citizens of the nation, their rights and responsibilities. how their
leaders are selected, and how citizens can participate in their government.
3.1- Teaching the Electoral Process
3.1- Teaching the Electoral Process/ Mock Election

 Children in elementary schools should learn about the electoral process in

democratic societies (Gandy, 2004; Haas, 2004; Ledford & Lyon, 2004).
 One way for children to learn about elections is for them to participate in a
mock election – (Haas’ s Approach)
 Teachers should "focus instead on key concepts about the voting process"
 To teach the full electoral process, it is best to have an election about a
class- or school-related issue (e.g., How should we spend $100 donation?)
 After a problem has been identified, the next step is to define a small number
of possible solutions. Some children then choose or are assigned to be
advocates for each solution.
 It is probably a good idea to have at least half the class be "nonpartisan," so
the campaigners have someone to sway.
3.1- Teaching the Electoral Process/ Mock Election

 A campaign manager is selected for each rival solution. The mock campaign
can include campaign posters, speeches, and, in the upper grades, the
development of video ads and campaign Website.
 Children should learn the vocabulary of free elections as they prepare for the
election (polling place, ballots). The actual election should include all the
elements of real elections. The children, could be asked to fill out a simple
voter registration form. There should be a private polling place and, since
many elementary schools serve as polling places for real elections
 To ensure fairness, students from another class might be "hired" to monitor the
voting and to count the ballots, with observers from each campaign on hand.
 Finally, the entire process should be analyzed. An important lesson would be to
ask students to consider the key elements of a free election. Teachers should
also ask the students to evaluate the effectiveness of the campaigns. If they
had it to do all over again, what would they do differently?
4-Citizenship Education: Values
Civics and Citizenship Education – Grade 6 Active Citizenship Project –
4.1- Teaching Democratic Values: A Model and an
Example

 The national standards call for knowledge of values that will lead to a
"commitment" to them.
 For teachers it seems the first goal should be to help students understand a
value and then to analyze the issues which can arise when the value guides
behavior.
 Teachers should want students to study controversial issues and make decisions
on the basis of those values
 Engle and Ochoa (1988) define a seven-step process for value-based decision
making on public issues. As an example, we will consider this process as it was
used in a sixth-grade classroom. The principal of the school asked students to
suggest how there could be fewer disputes over use of various areas of the
playground. Younger children complained that older children monopolized the
more desirable areas.
4.1- Teaching Democratic Values: A
Model and an Example
 Step 1: Identify and Define the Problem
 In this case, the principal, acting in response to student complaints, defined
the problem: How can the various areas of the playground be used so there
are fewer arguments about who should be playing where? At this point, the
teacher turned the discussion toward definition, . Engle and Ochoa note
this is an important prerequisite to value-based decision making. The
teacher wanted agreement on what constituted an "area." After some
discussion, the sixth graders generated a list of six playground areas
4.1- Teaching Democratic Values: A
Model and an Example
 Step 2: Identify Value Assumptions
 The teacher decided to focus on two values: (a) justice, and (b) respect for
the rights of others.
 The sixth graders had an extended discussion about justice, equity, and
sharing. The teacher asked for definitions of justice. Students responded by
saying it meant people "were fair" and "things happened according to fair
rules."
4.1- Teaching Democratic Values: A
Model and an Example
 Step 3: Identify Alternatives
 The teacher had two students transcribe ideas as they were offered.
Two "solution alternatives" survived the discussion:
 • Because nine classes were at recess together (three classes each in grades
4, 5, and 6), nine areas should be designated and the classes rotate through
them-this became known as the "rotation" plan.
 • Students could play in any area they wanted, and two sixth-grade monitors
would be assigned to each area. The monitors would ensure all students
would have a chance to play the area's game-this became known as the
"monitor" plan.
4.1- Teaching Democratic Values: A
Model and an Example
 Step 4: Predict Consequences
 Engle and Ochoa suggest two questions be considered: ( 1) What effects will
follow from each alternative? and (2 )What effect will each alternative have
on all parties? Some students noted the consequence of the rotation plan would
be they would be giving up their prerogative of what to play. Others noted that
they would not be able to "play handball every day, like we want to”
 Step 5: Reach Decisions
 Engle and Ochoa note that reaching decisions can be filled with tension because,
in most cases, no solution satisfies everyone. After considering the
consequences, however, this group of sixth graders almost unanimously
recommended the rotation plan
4.1- Teaching Democratic Values: A
Model and an Example
 Step 6: Justify Decisions
 Once again, the discussion turned to values. When the teacher asked for reasons
why the rotation plan was best, several students noted it was "fair" and would
give all classes "the same chance." This was a reliance on justice as a rationale.
Other students commented it seemed to be better than any other plan they
could think of. Three students were chosen to present the class's
recommendation to the principal.
 Step 7: Tentativeness of Decision Making
 The teacher wanted his students to understand that their suggested rotation plan
seemed like a good one but might not work. He prompted his students to remain
open-minded and to accept that they may need to revise their perspectives. In
this case, it was not necessary. The principal adopted the rotation plan. It
worked well and has been in place for 9 years now.
5- Citizenship Education: Processes
 The processes of effective citizenship should be practiced at home, in the
classroom, on the playground, in the community, and at the state, national,
and international levels. A good place to discuss the "doing" of citizenship
education is with a set of attitudes, called dispositions, that students should
adopt.
 These dispositions are beliefs that guide behavior. They include individual
responsibility, self-discipline, civility, respect for the rights of other individuals,
honesty, respect for the law, open-mindedness, critical-mindedness, negotiation
and compromise, persistence, civic-mindedness, compassion, and patriotism.
 Each of these dispositions involves a process. For example, the process of open-
mindedness has many components that can be practiced and developed in
the classroom. First, students can learn to listen, without interruption and
without preconceived notions, to the opinions of other students. Next, students
should learn to question the perspectives of others without personalizing their
comments
5- Citizenship Education: Processes
 Civil discourse is an essential process for students to learn (Parker,1995,
2001, 2006). In Civitas, the curriculum framework developed through the
Center for Civic Education, two essential components of civil discourse
are defined ( Quigley & Bahmueller, 1991, p. 13):
1.  Addressing the issue. Participants in a discussion focus on their
contributions to the issues at hand and do not engage in personal attack.
2. Respecting the right of others to be heard. Civil discourse requires good
listening participants in a discussion should not disrupt other speakers.
5- Citizenship Education: Processes/The national standards go on to define "the means by which citizens
can influence the decisions and actions of their government"

read about public issues

discuss public issues

communicate with public officials

vote

take an active role in interest groups, political parties, and organizations

attend meetings of governing agencies, work in campaigns, circulate petitions, take part in
peaceful demonstrations, and contribute money to parties, candidates, and causes
Each of these means can be implemented in some form in the
elementary classroom:
 

 Read About Public Issues. News magazines written for children, like Weekly
Reader, do an excellent job of presenting national and global issues to
children. Online computer resources are beginning to provide accessible
information to elementary students ( e.g., the online resource KidsNet)
 Discuss Public Issues. Children at all elementary levels should discuss issues
relating to their classroom, school, and community. Older elementary children
who have read a variety of perspectives should be encouraged to discuss state,
national, and global issues.
 Communicate with Public Officials. One of the first public officials students
should communicate with is their teacher. Students, at the proper time and in
a respectful manner, should have the opportunity to talk with their teachers
about topics of concern. Students at all levels should learn how to speak and
write to their principal on school issues
Each of these means can be implemented in some
form in the elementary classroom:

 Vote. Elementary students should take part in classroom and school elections.
 Take an Active Role in Interest Groups, Political Parties, and Organizations. A
variety of youth organizations encourage civic life, such as Girl Scouts, Boy
Scouts
 Attend Meetings of Governing Agencies, Work in Campaigns, Circulate
Petitions, Take Part in Peaceful Demonstrations, and Contribute Money to
Parties, Candidates, and Causes. Students should learn the petitioning
process in elementary school. They can petition for changes in classroom and
school policies.
5.1- Service Learning
 service learning "connects meaningful service in the school or community with
academic learning and civic responsibility" (p. 240). Service learning is
different from community service or voluntarism in two ways.
 First, the service activity is part of the curriculum and helps students acquire
social studies content and civic values.
 Second, service learning requires reflection and, in some cases, related
assignments for the students (Wade, 2008). Two of the positive features of
service learning are:
 it provides opportunities for "intergenerational learning," as children
interact with adults in their schools and communities
 it allows students to be good citizens and make their schools and
communities better places since almost all service learning projects
attempt to solve problems. Quality service-learning activities meet these
four criteria:
Quality service-learning activities meet these four
criteria:

 I. The activity provides opportunities for both the students and

representatives from other agencies to design the experience (i.e., if
students participate at a senior living facility, residents of the facility help
plan the scope of the students' involvement).
 2. The activity includes both meaningful service and the opportunity to learn
social studies content.
 3. The activity requires students to reflect on their service experience and
the connection between the experience and democratic values.
 4. The activity should focus on how to create a better society rather than
simply providing charity that perpetuates the status quo.
5.1- Service Learning
 Proctor and Haas (1993) and Wade (1994) discuss service learning as a part of citizenship
education for elementary students. The responsibilities and opportunities for community
and social behaviors are present and need to begin at an early age" (p. 381). They describe a
hierarchy of service projects:
  Service projects in schools and classrooms. These include cross-age tutoring, planting
trees, raising money to buy computers for the school, and the venerable clean-campus
crusade. Many of these projects can be run by the school Parent-Teacher Association. At the
end of this chapter is a description of how a second-grade teacher designed school service
projects for her students.
 Service projects in the community. These serve the neighborhood and the community.
Proctor and Haas suggest they that begin in third grade. Community service projects
typically involve cooperation with out-of-school agencies; examples are collecting food for
victims of a disaster and converting a vacant lot into a park.
 Individual service projects. Proctor and Haas ( 1993) suggest these are appropriate for
middle school and high school students. These projects involve a commitment of many hours
over an extended period of time, such as volunteer work at a preschool or a senior citizen
center.
5.2- Citizenship and Classroom management
 Students at all grade level, should be allowed to do each of the following:

 • Play some role in the development of classroom and playground rules.

Teachers should establish some nonnegotiable rules (e.g., keep your hands and
feet to yourself). Many aspects of classroom life, however, lend themselves to a
variety of possible rules. Students need the experience of considering possible
rules and the consequences of their implementation. Schimmel ( 1997) makes a
persuasive argument that the development of school and classroom rules should
involve everyone in the school community, students, parents, and staff.
 • Resolve problems through collaborative effort. Students should approach
their teachers with problems they think should be addressed. Likewise, teachers
should bring some problems to their classroom community for consideration.
Some problems have to be resolved only by the teacher and the student(s)
directly involved ( e.g., problems revealing private information about students).
5.2- Citizenship and Classroom management
 • Make decisions about how they allocate their time and about what
activities they pursue. Of course, teachers plan activities for each school
day. However, students should have some blocks of class time to make
choices about what they will do. Likewise, teachers select most topics
covered in class. Students, though, should be able to choose areas of
personal interest to study, especially in literature, social studies, and
science. Democracy requires choices, and the elementary school day should
present opportunities for students to learn how to make reasoned and
informed decisions.
6- Summary of key points
 The development of good citizens is the most important goal of social studies.

 Controversy surrounds whether citizenship education should be limited to information on

how government works with a definition of a good citizen as a person who follows the rules
and votes (transmission), or whether citizenship education should teach students to analyze
current issues and take action for social change (transformation).
 The content of citizenship education is government and civics. Students should learn what
government is, what government should do, the basic principles and values of American
democracy, the U.S. Constitution, the relationship of the United States to other nations, and
the nature of good citizenship.
 Social studies programs should make students knowledgeable about basic American civic
values. This knowledge should serve as the basis for a commitment to those values.

 A process of value-based decision making includes identifying social problems, relevant values,
alternative courses of action, and predicting consequences of actions, reaching a decision,
and justifying a decision.