AIRCRAFT WEIGHT

AND BALANCE
AMT 647
PURPOSE OF WEIGHING OR RE-
WEIGHING OF AIRCRAFT
 As an aircraft maintenance technician you will
often perform repairs or alterations that change
an aircraft's weight and balance.
 This in turn changes the way an aircraft's weight
must be effectively distributed, as well as its
flight characteristics.
 Therefore, it is the responsibility of the aircraft
maintenance technician who makes a repair or
alteration to change the aircraft weight and
balance paperwork.
PURPOSE OF WEIGHING OR RE-
WEIGHING OF AIRCRAFT
 This paperwork must reflect the new computa­tions
for weight and balance, and indicate the aircraft is
safe to fly.
 This information then allows the pilot to make an
informed decision as to the airworthiness of the
aircraft.
PURPOSE OF WEIGHING OR RE-
WEIGHING OF AIRCRAFT
 Responsibility for Weight and Balance Control
 The responsibility for proper weight and balance
control begins with the engineers and designers
and extends to the technicians who maintain the
aircraft and the pilots who operate them. Modern
aircraft are engineered utilizing state-of-the-art
technology and materials to achieve maximum
reliability and performance for the intended
category.
PURPOSE OF WEIGHING OR RE-
WEIGHING OF AIRCRAFT
 As much care and expertise must be exercised in
operating and maintaining these efficient aircraft as
was taken in their design and manufacturing:

 1. The designers of an aircraft set the maximum weight

based on the amount of lift the wings or rotors can
provide under the operational conditions for which the
aircraft is designed. The structural strength of the
aircraft also limits the maximum weight the aircraft can
safely carry. The designers carefully determine the
ideal center of gravity (CG) and calculate the maximum
allowable deviation from this specific location.
PURPOSE OF WEIGHING OR RE-
WEIGHING OF AIRCRAFT
 2. The manufacturer provides the aircraft operator
with the empty weight of the aircraft and the
location of its empty weight center of gravity
(EWCG) at the time the certified aircraft leaves the
factory. Amateur-built aircraft must have this
information determined and available at the time
of certification.
PURPOSE OF WEIGHING OR RE-
WEIGHING OF AIRCRAFT
 3. The FAA-certificated mechanic or repairman
who maintains the aircraft keeps the weight and
balance records current, recording any changes
that have been made because of repairs or
alterations.
PURPOSE OF WEIGHING OR RE-
WEIGHING OF AIRCRAFT
 4. The pilot in command (PIC) has the
responsibility prior to every flight to know the
maximum allowable weight of the aircraft and its
CG limits. This allows the pilot to determine during
the pre-flight inspection that the aircraft is loaded
so that the CG is within the allowable limits.
PURPOSE OF WEIGHING OR RE-
WEIGHING OF AIRCRAFT
 Weight Control

 Weight is a major factor in airplane construction

and operation, and it demands respect from all
pilots and particular diligence by all maintenance
personnel. Excessive weight reduces the
efficiency of an aircraft and the available safety
margin if an emergency condition should arise.
PURPOSE OF WEIGHING OR RE-
WEIGHING OF AIRCRAFT
 When an aircraft is designed, it is made as light as
the required structural strength allows, and the
wings or rotors are designed to support the
maximum allowable weight. When the weight of
an aircraft is increased, the wings or rotors must
produce additional lift and the structure must
support not only the additional static loads, but
also the dynamic loads imposed by flight
maneuvers.
PURPOSE OF WEIGHING OR RE-
WEIGHING OF AIRCRAFT
 Severe uncoordinated maneuvers or flight into
turbulence can impose dynamic loads on the
structure great enough to cause failure. In
accordance with Title 14 of the Code of Federal
Regulations (14 CFR) part 23, the structure of a
normal category airplane must be strong enough
to sustain a load factor of 3.8 times its weight.
PURPOSE OF WEIGHING OR RE-
WEIGHING OF AIRCRAFT
 Every pound of weight added to a normal category
aircraft requires that the structure be strong
enough to support 3.8 pounds. An aircraft
operated in the utility category must sustain a load
factor of 4.4 times its weight, and acrobatic
category aircraft must be strong enough to
withstand 6.0 times their weight.
PURPOSE OF WEIGHING OR RE-
WEIGHING OF AIRCRAFT
 The lift produced by a wing is determined by its
airfoil shape, angle of attack, speed through the
air, and air density. When an aircraft takes off from
an airport with a high density altitude, it must
accelerate to a speed faster than would be
required at sea level to produce enough lift to
allow takeoff; therefore, a longer takeoff run is
necessary.
PURPOSE OF WEIGHING OR RE-
WEIGHING OF AIRCRAFT
 The distance needed may be longer than the
available runway. When operating from a high
density altitude airport, the Pilot’s Operating
Handbook (POH) or Airplane Flight Manual (AFM)
must be consulted to determine the maximum
weight allowed for the aircraft under the conditions
of altitude, temperature, wind, and runway
conditions.
PURPOSE OF WEIGHING OR RE-
WEIGHING OF AIRCRAFT
 UNDER PHILIPPINE CIVIL AVIATION REGULATION
(P.C.A.R PART 5)

 5.4.4 WEIGHING OF AIRCRAFT

 
 (a) All Philippine registered aircraft shall be re-weighed
at the following periods:
 1. When used for commercial or aerial work operations
every three (3) years;
 2. When used for commercial operations and with CAAP
approved weight control program, at such periods as
determined by the weight control program;
PURPOSE OF WEIGHING OR RE-
WEIGHING OF AIRCRAFT
 3. When used in general aviation every five (5)
years, or
 4. For any aircraft at such times as the Director
General may direct.

 (b) A complete and continuous record of a

modification performed and their resultant change
to the Mass and CG limits shall be maintained for
all aircraft.
PURPOSE OF WEIGHING OR RE-
WEIGHING OF AIRCRAFT
 (c) A revised Load Data sheet shall be issued
before flight.

 1. For airplanes, when the empty weight has

changed by more than one half of one percent of
the max. T.O.W. or 10 kg, whichever is the greater,
or the empty weight center of gravity position has
changed by more than 2% of the maximum
permissible center of gravity range or 5 mm,
whichever is the greater;
PURPOSE OF WEIGHING OR RE-
WEIGHING OF AIRCRAFT
 2. For rotorcraft, when the empty weight has
changed by more than one percent of the max.
T.O.W. or 10 kg, whichever is the greater, or the
empty weight center of gravity position has
changed by more than 10 mm or 10 percent of the
maximum permissible center of gravity range
whichever is the less.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Airplane Flight manual (AFM). An FAA-approved document,
prepared by the holder of a type certificate for an aircraft, that
specifies the operating limitations and contains the required
markings and placards and other information applicable to
the regulations under which the aircraft was certificated
 Approved type certificate. A certificate of approval issued
by the FAA for the design of an aircraft, engine, or propeller.
 Arm. (GAMA) The horizontal distance from the reference
datum to the CG of an item. The algebraic sign is plus (+) if
measured aft of the datum or to the right side of the center
line when considering a lateral calculation. The algebraic sign
is minus (–) if measured forward of the datum or the left side
of the center line when considering a lateral calculation.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Balanced laterally. Being balanced in such a way that the
aircraft wings tend to remain level.
 Ballast. A weight installed or carried in an aircraft to move
the center of gravity to a location within its allowable limits.
 Permanent ballast (fixed ballast). A weight permanently
installed in an aircraft to bring its CG into allowable limits.
Permanent ballast is part of the aircraft empty weight.
 Temporary ballast. Weights that can be carried in a cargo
compartment of an aircraft to move the location of CG for
a specific flight condition. Temporary ballast must be
removed when the aircraft is weighed.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Basic empty weight. (GAMA) Standard empty weight
plus optional equipment.
 Basic operating weight (BOW). The empty weight of
the aircraft plus the weight of the required crew, their
baggage, and other standard items, such as meals and
potable water. .
 Butt (or buttock) line zero. A line through the
symmetrical center of an aircraft from nose to tail. It
serves as the datum for measuring the arms used to
determine the lateral CG. Lateral moments that cause
the aircraft to rotate clockwise are positive (+) , and those
that cause it to rotate counterclockwise are negative (–).
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Center of gravity (CG). (GAMA) The point at which an
airplane would balance if suspended. Its distance from the
reference datum is determined by dividing the total
moment by the total weight of the airplane. It is the mass
center of the aircraft, or the theoretical point at which the
entire weight of the aircraft is assumed to be concentrated.
It may be expressed in percent of MAC (mean
aerodynamic cord) or in inches from the reference datum.
 Center of lift. The location along the chord line of an
airfoil at which all the lift forces produced by the airfoil are
considered to be concentrated. The distance in inches aft
of the datum of the center of a compartment or a fuel tank
for weight and balance purposes.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 CG arm. (GAMA) The arm obtained by adding the
airplane’s individual moments and dividing the
sum by the total weight.
 CG limits. (GAMA) The extreme CG locations
within which the aircraft must be operated at a
given weight. These limits are indicated on
pertinent FAA aircraft type certificate data sheets,
specifications, or weight and balance records
 Chord. A straight line distance across a wing from
leading edge to trailing edge.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Datum. An imaginary vertical plane or line from
which all measurements of arms are taken. The
datum is established by the manufacturer. Once
the datum has been selected, all moment arms
and the location of CG range are measured from
this point.
 Delta (Δ). The Greek symbol “Δ” means a change
in something. ΔCG means a change in the center
of gravity location.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Dynamic load. The actual weight of the aircraft
multiplied by the load factor, or the increase in
weight caused by acceleration.
 Empty weight. The weight of the airframe,
engines, all permanently installed equipment, and
unusable fuel. Depending upon the part of the
federal regulations under which the aircraft was
certificated, either the undrainable oil or full
reservoir of oil is included.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Empty weight center of gravity (EWCG). This is the
center of gravity of the aircraft in the empty condition,
containing only the items specified in the aircraft empty
weight. This CG is an essential part of the weight and
balance record of the aircraft.
 Empty weight center of gravity range. The distance
between the allowable forward and aft empty-weight CG
limits.
 Equipment list. A list of items approved by the FAA for
installation in a particular aircraft. The list includes the
name, part number, weight, and arm of the component.
Installation or removal of an item in the equipment list is
considered to be a minor alteration.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Fulcrum. The point about which a lever balances.
 Index point. A location specified by the aircraft
manufacturer from which arms used in weight and
balance computations are measured. Arms
measured from the index point are called index
arms.
 Landing weight. The takeoff weight of an aircraft
minus the fuel burned and/or dumped en route.
 Lateral balance. The balance around the roll, or
longitudinal, axis.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Lateral offset moment. The moment, in pound
inches, of a force that tends to rotate a helicopter
about its longitudinal axis. The lateral offset moment
is the product of the weight of the object and its
distance from butt line zero. Lateral offset moments
that tend to rotate the aircraft clockwise are positive,
and those that tend to rotate it counterclockwise are
negative.
 LEMAC. Leading edge of the mean aerodynamic
chord. A reference point for measurements, and
specified in inches from the datum to allow
computations to relate percent MAC to the datum.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Load cell. A component in an electronic weighing system
that is placed between the jack and the jack pad on the
aircraft. The load cell contains strain gauges whose
resistance changes with the weight on the cell.
 Load factor. The ratio of the maximum load an aircraft
can sustain to the total weight of the aircraft. Normal
category aircraft must have a load factor of a least 3.8;
utility category aircraft, 4.4; and acrobatic category
aircraft, 6.0.
 Loading graph. A graph of load weight and load moment
indexes. Diagonal lines for each item relate the weight to
the moment index, eliminating the need for calculations.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Longitudinal axis. An imaginary line through an aircraft
from nose to tail, passing through its center of gravity.
 Longitudinal balance. The balance around the pitch, or
lateral, axis.
 MAC. Mean aerodynamic chord.
 Major alteration. An alteration not listed in the aircraft,
aircraft engine, or propeller specifications (1) that might
appreciably affect weight, balance, structural strength,
performance, powerplant operation, flight characteristics,
or other qualities affecting airworthiness; or (2) that is not
done according to accepted practices or cannot be done
by elementary operations.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Maximum landing weight. (GAMA) The
maximum weight approved for the landing
touchdown.
 Maximum ramp weight. (GAMA) The maximum
weight approved for ground maneuver. It includes
weight of start, taxi, and run-up fuel.
 Maximum takeoff weight. (GAMA) The maximum
weight approved for the start of the takeoff run.
 Maximum taxi weight. The maximum weight
approved for ground maneuvers. This is the same
as maximum ramp weight.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Maximum weight. The maximum authorized weight
of the aircraft and all of its equipment as specified in
the Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) for the
aircraft
 Maximum zero fuel weight. The maximum
authorized weight of an aircraft without fuel. This is
the total weight for a particular flight minus the fuel. It
includes the aircraft and everything that is carried on
the flight except the weight of the fuel.
 Mean aerodynamic chord (MAC). The average
distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge of
the wing.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Minimum fuel. The amount of fuel necessary for one-half
hour of operation at the rated maximum-continuous power
setting of the engine, which, for weight and balance
purposes, is 1⁄12 gallon per maximum-except-takeoff
(METO) horse-power. It is the maximum amount of fuel
that could be used in weight and balance computations
when low fuel might adversely affect the most critical
balance conditions. To determine the weight of the
minimum fuel in pounds, divide the METO horsepower by
two.
 Minor alteration. An alteration other than a major
alteration. This includes alterations that are listed in the
aircraft, aircraft engine, or propeller specifications
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Moment. A force that causes or tends to cause an
object to rotate. It is indicated by the product of the
weight of an item multiplied by its arm.
 Moment. (GAMA) The product of the weight of an item
multiplied by its arm. (Moment divided by a constant is
used to simplify balance calculations by reducing the
number of digits; see reduction factor.)
 Moment index. The moment (weight times arm)
divided by a reduction factor.
 Net weight. The weight of the aircraft minus the weight
of chocks or other devices used to hold the aircraft on
the scales.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 PAX. The abbreviation of passengers.
 Payload. (GAMA) The weight of occupants, cargo, and
baggage.
 Percent MAC. The distance in inches of the CG from
LEMAC divided by the MAC. It is a good standard for CG
location in airplanes because it permits a standard weight
and balance program for different types of airplanes.
 Ramp weight. The zero fuel weight plus all of the usable
fuel on board.
 Reference datum. (GAMA) An imaginary vertical plane
from which all horizontal distances are measured for
balance purposes.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Reduction factor. A number, usually 100 or 1,000,
by which a moment is divided to produce a smaller
number that is less likely to cause mathematical
errors when computing the center of gravity.
 Residual fuel. The fuel that remains trapped in the
system after draining the fuel from the aircraft with
the aircraft in level flight attitude. The weight of this
residual fuel is counted as part of the empty weight
of the aircraft.
 Service ceiling. The highest altitude at which an
aircraft can maintain a steady rate of climb of 100
feet per minute.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Standard empty weight. (GAMA) The weight of a
standard airplane including unusable fuel, full
operating fluids, and full oil.
 Static load. The load imposed on an aircraft
structure due to the weight of the aircraft and its
contents.
 Station. (GAMA) A location along the airplane
fuselage usually given in terms of distance from
the reference datum.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Structural station. A location in the aircraft, such as a
bulkhead, that is identified by a number designating its
distance in inches or percent MAC from the datum. The
datum is, therefore, identified as station zero. The stations
and arms are identical. An item located at station +50
would have an arm of 50 inches.
 Takeoff weight. The weight of an aircraft just before
beginning the takeoff roll. It is the ramp weight minus the
weight of the fuel burned during start and taxi.
 Tare weight. The weight of any chocks or devices that are
used to hold an aircraft on the scales when it is weighed.
The tare weight must be subtracted from the scale reading
to get the net weight of the aircraft.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 TEMAC. Trailing edge of the mean aerodynamic chord.
 Type certificate data sheets (TCDS). The official
specifications issued by the FAA for an aircraft, engine,
or propeller.
 Undrainable oil. The oil that does not drain from an
engine lubricating system when the aircraft is in the
normal ground attitude and the drain valve is left open.
The weight of the undrainable oil is part of the empty
weight of the aircraft.
 Unusable fuel. (GAMA) The fuel remaining after a test
has been completed in accordance with governmental
regulations.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Useful load. (GAMA) The difference between
takeoff weight, or ramp weight if applicable, and
basic empty weight.
 Wing chord. A straight line distance across a
wing from leading edge to trailing edge.
 Zero fuel weight. The weight of an aircraft without
fuel.