Farm Power and Energy

ENGR. ROBERT V. OBIANO

Introduction
• Agricultural mechanization requires power and energy inputs.
• Agricultural mechanization aims to increase agricultural productivity
and lessen drudgery of farm work
Classification of agricultural operation
• A. Tractive work
1. Land preparation: plowing, harrowing, land leveling
2. Cultivation
3. Harvesting
4. Transport
• B. Stationary work:
1. Threshing 2. Water pumping 3. Milling
 Common sources of power and energy for agro-
industrial operations

a.Human power
• A mature human being can continuously develop an output of 0.10 hp if
he is in good physical condition, well-fed and working in a favorable
environment. As a poor source of mechanical power, he is most suited to
operations which require judgment and skill.
a.Animal power
Draft or work animals can develop an output of 0.7-1.3 horsepower.
James Watt of Scotland, to determine the power performance of his
steam engines, ran a series of tests with average horses and found that a
horse could lift 366 lb of coal out of a mine at the rate of 1 ft/s (22,000 ft-
lb/min). He arbitrarily increased this value by 50% to deliberately
underrate his engines. The resulting figure is 33,000 ft-lb/min or 550 ft-
lb/s. It is approximately equivalent to 0.746 kW .
a.Animal power
Performance of carabao and cattle under varying pulling loads
Load (kg) Draft (kg) Speed (kph) Hp
Carabao Cattle Carabao Cattle Carabao Cattle
50 24 20 4.0 4.4 0.42 0.32
100 55 40 4.6 4.0 0.92 0.58
150 75 62 4.3 3.6 1.18 0.82
200 101 88 4.3 3.2 1.58 1.03
250 146 118 3.9 2.4 2.08 1.03
300 The test draft animals could not pull the load of 300 kg and beyond.
b.Electricity
Electricity supplies power for lighting buildings, for heating and for
operating water pumps and refrigeration equipment. Electric motors
provide stationary power for various agricultural operations.
c.Solar energy
Solar energy has been in use throughout the world mainly for drying
and heating. Very recently, new dimensions of solar energy applications
have been developed like electricity generation, space cooling,
refrigeration and water pumping. However, due to high investment costs,
the commercial use of these modern technologies has yet been limited.
Classification of solar energy applications
a. Thermal or heat based applications. These rely on heat energy coming
from the sun. The heat energy can be used directly to heat or cool systems
or be transformed to other forms of energy such as mechanical or
electrical.

b. Photovoltaic applications. These rely on the illumination-spectrum

intensity coming from the sun. With the aid of semi-conductor materials,
e.g. solar cells, the illumination is transformed directly into electricity.
d.Wind energy
Wind was another early source of power used to multiply the
productive capacity of the human muscle. On the seas, it has been used to
propel ships, and on land, it has served a variety of purposes like pumping
water, grinding grains and generating electricity.
e.Water power
The movement of masses of water is a form of kinetic energy which
can be converted into mechanical energy through the use of water wheels
or water turbines. In general, two types of water masses movement can be
used: (a) the falling/flowing of streams of water through the force of
gravity, and, (b) the rise and fall of tides through lunar (and solar) gravity.
f.Biomass energy
Biomass refers to all organic materials that originate from living
organisms such as wood, agricultural residues, animal wastes and others.
Large proportion of biomass, mainly fuelwood, is being used in
developing countries.
Biomass conversion processes
1. Thermochemical conversion
a. Gasification (downdraft gasifiers, updraft and fluidized bed)
b. Pyrolysis and carbonization
c. Combustion (cook stoves)

2. Biochemical conversion
a. Ethanol production
b. Biogas production (anaerobic digestion)
g.Heat engines
Engines are mechanical devices that convert
heat energy of fuels into mechanical energy.

In external combustion engines (ECE), the fuel is ignited and burned

outside a cylinder and the heat energy is applied indirectly to a piston by
an intermediate medium, usually water vapor. A steam engine is an
external combustion engine.
In internal combustion engines (ICE),

the fuel is ignited and burned inside a cylinder and the resulting explosion
causes an instantaneous application of pressure to a piston. Internal
combustion engines have completely replaced the steam engine for all types
of agricultural power applications.

a. They are used as stationary power sources for milling, grinding, water
pumping, generation of electricity, etc.
b. They are used as power units of (1) portable farm equipment such as
sprayers, and threshers, and (2) self-propelled machines such as tractors,
combines and harvesters.
A great number of them are mounted on tractors. Tractors can classified
into:
a. 2-wheel tractor (hand tractor)
b. compact 4-wheel tractor
c. combination wheel type and track type
d. tract type or crawler
e. combination wheel type and tract type
Main engine components
a. cylinder h. piston rings
b. cylinder block i. piston pin
c. cylinder head j. flywheel
d. valves k. crankcase
e. piston l. intake manifold
f. connecting rod m. exhaust manifold
g. crankshaft
Main engine components
a. cylinder h. piston rings
b. cylinder block i. piston pin
c. cylinder head j. flywheel
d. valvesk. crankcase
e. piston l. intake manifold
f. connecting rod m. exhaust manifold
g. crankshaft
 Physical nomenclature
a. bore (d) – the diameter of the engine cylinder
b. stroke (l) – distance the piston travels in one direction
c. piston displacement (Pd) – volume displaced by the piston in one stroke
d. clearance volume ( Cv ) – the space inside the cylinder when the piston is
at top dead center position
e. cylinder volume – the sum of piston displacement and clearance volume
f. compression ratio ( Cr ) – ratio of cylinder volume to the clearance volume
g. engine efficiency – a measure of the ability of an engine to convert fuel into
useful work
Engine cycles and principles of operation
In the operation of internal combustion engines, four
events repeatedly takes place inside the combustion
chamber one after the other in a definite order. These
cycle of events are the following:
• Intake (suction) – This event is characterized by the
taking in of combustible materials.
• Compression – The air or air-fuel mixture which have
entered during the intake event is trapped into a small
combustion chamber.
• Power – The air-fuel mixture is ignited resulting to a very
rapid expansion of the burning mixture.
• Exhaust – The burned gases are removed from the
combustion chamber.
 Based on the manner of igniting the fuel:
1. Electric (spark) ignition engine. This engine utilizes an electric spark
produced by a spark plug located inside the combustion chamber to ignite
the compressed air and fuel mixture. Fuel used is gasoline, and metering is
done by a device called carburetor.
2. Compression (injection) ignition engine. This engine utilizes the heat of
compressed air to ignite the fuel as it is being injected inside the combustion
chamber. Fuel used is diesel and metering is accomplished by the fuel
injection system.
 Comparison of diesel and gasoline engines
Characteristics CI SI
Ignition heat of compression spark
Compression ratio 14-22 to 1 5-8 to 1
Thermal efficiency 30-36% 25-30%
Fuel induction injector carburetor
Fuel used diesel gasoline
Air-fuel ratio 15-100 to 1 12-15 to 1
Fuel consumption low high
Exhaust gas temperature 900˚F 1300˚F

Starting characteristic hard easy

Engine wt/hp high low
Initial cost high low
Based on the number of strokes to complete the engine cycle, engines can
be classified as:

1. Four-stroke cycle engines require four movements of the piston to

complete the cycle.
2. Two-stroke cycle engines require two movements of the piston to
complete the cycle.
4 Stroke Internal Combustion Engine

2 Stroke Internal Combustion Engine

 Comparison of 4-stroke cycle and 2-stroke cycle engines
Characteristics 4-stroke 2-stroke
Number of power strokes 1 per 2 rev. of crankshaft 1 per 1 rev. of crankshaft

Power small Large (1.5 times)

Valve mechanism required absent
Construction/design complicated simple
Fuel consumption less more (15% more)
Durability good good
Stability of rpm high with large flywheel low with small flywheel

Lubrication independent of oil circuit mixed with fuel

Oil consumption little much

Carbon deposit inside cylinder and little much
contamination of spark plug

Self-weight and size heavy and large light and small

Market price expensive cheap
 Auxiliary systems
A. Fuel systems
1) Functions of the fuel system of compression ignition engines
• To meter the correct amount of fuel as demanded by the load
• To accurately time the beginning and ending of the fuel injection
• To inject fuel against very high pressure in the cylinder
Auxiliary systems
2) Functions of the fuel system of spark ignition engines
• To assist in properly vaporizing the fuel
• To mix the vaporized fuel in the correct proportions with air
• To supply the engine with the proper quantity of mixture
Auxiliary systems
B. Electrical system (Gasoline engines only)

The essential functions of any electric ignition system are (1) the
generation of a large, hot spark in the cylinder, and, (2) the production of
this spark at the right instant in the travel of the piston.
Auxiliary systems
Cells or batteries are chemical devices for generating electric current. A
cell is a single unit while a battery consists of two or more cells connected
together.
Fundamental parts are:
(1) positive terminal,
(2) negative terminal,
(3) electrolyte, and,
(4) the container.
Auxiliary systems
C. Valve system (Four stroke cycle engines only)

The operation of an internal combustion engine necessitates the

admission, trapping, and exhausting of the working medium. These
functions are accomplished by means of the valves.
d. Cooling system
Without the cooling system, at least three major troubles could arise:
 The piston and cylinder would expand such that the piston would seize in the
cylinder;
 Lubricating properties of the oil will be destroyed by the temperature;
 Pre-ignition of the fuel will take place resulting in knocking and loss of power.

Function of cooling systems:

• To maintain engine temperature within optimum levels;
• To assists in rapid engine warm up.
E. Lubrication system
Functions:
• reduces friction and wear by separating rubbing parts
• assists in cooling the engine by absorbing heat from parts
• acts as the final seal between the piston and cylinder walls
• assists in cleaning the engine
f. Governing system
A governor is a device that automatically regulates the speed of an
engine. In general, governors are of centrifugal spring-loaded type.
For electric ignition engines, the governing mechanism is connected to
the throttle butterfly of the carburetor in such a manner that it controls and
varies the throttle opening according to the amount of fuel mixture needed
to maintain the desired engine speed and power output.
The control of the diesel engine speed and load involves the control of
the charge of fuel injected. The mechanism is connected and becomes a
part of the injection pump. No attempt is made to vary the air charge, and
it remains constant at all loads.
 Engine power
a. Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP). It is the average net pressure
on the piston during the power stroke. It is expressed either in kPa or
lb/in2.

b. Indicated horsepower (IHP). It is the total horsepower generated in the

cylinder and received by piston.
 Engine power
c. Brake horsepower (BHP). It is the power available at the crankshaft. It
is measured using a suitable dynamometer.

d. Brake mean effective pressure (BMEP). It is calculated from the brake

horsepower of the engine.
 Engine power
e. Mechanical efficiency. It is the ratio of the brake horsepower to the
indicated horsepower.

f. Volumetric efficiency. It is the ratio of the actual weight of air inducted

by the engine during the intake stroke, to the theoretical weight of air that
should have been inducted by filling the piston displacement volume with
air at atmospheric temperature and pressure.
 Engine power
g. Specific fuel consumption. It is the quantity of fuel consumed by an
engine on the basis of its horsepower-hour performance.

h. Thermal efficiency. It is the ratio of the horsepower output of an engine

to the fuel horsepower.
Essential conditions for efficient engine operation
a. The cylinder should have good compression. To ensure good
compression:
1. valves must sit properly on the valve seat;
2. good fit must exist between piston rings and cylinder wall;
3. use of recommended oil to enable it to seal minute gaps between the
piston rings and cylinder wall;
4. cylinder head gasket must be tightly secured.
Essential conditions for efficient engine operation
b. The valves must be correctly timed. Engine manufacturers fix the
opening and closing points of the valves with respect to the position and
direction of motion of the piston. It is fixed by:
1. providing timing marks between the crankshaft and camshaft timing
gears;
2. fixing the clearance between the valve and tappet.
Essential conditions for efficient engine operation
d. The occurrence of the spark must be correctly timed. The combustible
mixture must be ignited at the right moment so that its maximum effect
would be felt when the piston is at TDC. If the maximum effect of ignition
occurs before TDC, there will be knocking and appreciable loss of power.
The piston needs to reach TDC but the expanding gases is resisting it. If
the maximum expansion occurs after TDC, the maximum effect will not
be felt resulting in considerable power loss.
Essential conditions for efficient engine operation
e. The moving parts must be properly lubricated. Lubricating oil does not
only reduce friction by separating rubbing parts but also assists in
cleaning the engine of carbon and dirt. This is one reason why there is a
need for periodic oil changes.
Essential conditions for efficient engine operation
f. The temperature of the engine must be maintained at optimum level.
The main bulk of the heat rejected by the engine is dissipated through the
cooling system. For air-cooled engines, it is necessary that the passages
are free from dirt for most efficient heat transfer. For liquid-cooled
engines, there should be sufficient amount of water available in the
cooling system to carry away or dissipate the unwanted heat.
Servicing of engines

Servicing is a term which includes both the essential daily and periodic
maintenance work. Daily maintenance involves the simple activities such
as checking the levels of fuel and oil, condition of the cooling system and
transmission belt, and the tightness of the bolts, nuts and screws. Periodic
maintenance on the other hand, involves the scheduled cleaning,
replacement or adjustment of parts related to the valve, ignition, fuel,
lubrication and cooling systems.
Servicing of engines
Small engines are primarily air cooled, and the servicing of the cooling
system is critical but often neglected. Overheating of the engine occurs
when the cooling fins and shrouds become clogged with debris. The fins,
shrouds and fan screen must be cleaned at least every 25 hours of
operation.
Troubleshooting small engines
Small Gasoline Engine
When trouble shooting a small engine, first check the three things any
engine must have to start and run: (1) Compression; (2) Ignition (spark at
the plug); (3) Carburetion (fuel and air into the cylinder)
Check the compression by cranking the engine to the point of strongest
resistance, and note whether the engine snaps back. If there seems to be no
resistance, check to see if the spark plug is tight and its gasket is in place.
There are other reasons for lack of compression but the checking of these
are beyond the capability of the ordinary user.
Troubleshooting small engines
Check the ignition by removing the cable from the spark plug, holding the
cable about 3/16 inch away from some metal surface on the engine and
cranking the engine. If a bluish spark will jump a 3/16-inch gap, the
trouble is not in the ignition but may be in the spark plug.
Remove the spark plug and reconnect it with the cable. Place the threaded
portion of the plug in contact with some metal surface of the engine and
crank the engine. If a bluish spark is produced at the spark plug gap, the
trouble is not in the spark plug.
Troubleshooting small engines
Check the carburetion by holding a thumb over the spark plug hole while
cranking the engine a few turns. Your thumb should be moist with gas if
fuel is reaching the cylinder. If there is no gas getting to the cylinder,
check the vent in the gas tank cap, check for fuel in the tank and check the
fuel lines to see that the fuel is getting to the carburetor.
Troubleshooting small engines
Small Diesel Engine
When trouble shooting a small diesel engine, first check the two things a
diesel engine must have to start and run: (1) Compression; (2) Fuel
injection.
Check the compression by following the procedure for checking
compression of small gasoline engines.
Troubleshooting small engines
Check the flow of fuel by opening the bleeder located at the low pressure
side of the fuel injector. If no fuel flows out of the bleeder, the fuel filter is
probably clogged assuming that there is fuel in the tank and the fuel shut-
off valve (fuel cock) is turned on. If air and fuel flow out of the bleeder,
continue bleeding the system. This occurs when the engine runs out of
fuel during operation. Tighten the bleeder and the engine should now start.
If the engine still does not start, there is probably something wrong with
the injector nozzle. However, a competent mechanic is required to
perform the repair.
Power transmission system
a. clutch
• transmits power from flywheel
• absorbs impact load
• allows for gradual application of load to engine
• permits shifting of gears without stopping the engine
b. gear box
• supplies different speeds of travel
• supplies necessary torque at different loads
• used for idling
Power transmission system
c. differential
• allows different speeds of ground wheel when turning
• acts as second speed reduction point in the power train

d. brake system
• used to slow down or stop the vehicle
Tractor power
Tractors deliver power in several ways. Pulled or towed implements
are powered through the traction of drive wheels and the pull or draft from
the drawbar. Rotary power is obtained from the power-take-off (PTO)
shaft of from a belt pulley. Both linear and rotary power can be produced
by a tractor’s hydraulic system. Some implements require electric power
from tractors. The figure shows the mechanical transmission efficiency for
a tractor on a concrete surface.
Tractor size determination
The primary tillage operations demand the highest draft requirements such
that the process of determining tractor size is based on them.
Tractor size determination
Methods of estimating tractor size:

a. Use of specific draft. Unit draft is the specific resistance of a given type
of soil at a given moisture content to allow the passage of a tillage
implement. Table below shows the unit draft of different soil types.
Unit draft of different soils

Type of soil Unit draft (psi) Type of soil Unit draft (psi)

1. Sandy soil 3 5. Silt loam, dry 6-7

2. Sandy loan, moist 3-4 6. Clay loam, moist 6-7

3. Sandy loam, dry 4-6 7. Clay loam, dry 7-8

4. Silt loam, moist 5-6 8. Heavy clay 10-11

 Example
Determine the draft requirement, drawbar
horsepower and the tractor size for an operation
using a four bottom 28” disc plow with a furrow
width of 12”. The soil type is dry clay loam. Use an
average speed of 3.5 mph and 10” depth of cut.
Tractor size determination
b. Use of specific resistance of implements
Data on the specific resistance of selected implements can be found
in some handbooks and literatures on agricultural engineering. Using the
same procedure as above, power requirements of operations and
approximate sizes of power units can be calculated. The table below gives
a partial list of these data.
Specific resistance offered by various farm machines
Operation Machine Specific resistance
Tillage Chisel plow 200-800 lb/ft
  Subsoiler 70-160 lb/in depth/bottom
  Rotary tiller 5-10 PTOhp/ft
Cultivation Rotary hoe 30-100 lb/ft
  Shallow row crop cultivator 40-80 lb/ft
Chemical application Anhydrous ammonia applicator 420 lb/knife
Planting Corn planter 80-120 lb/row
  Corn, soybeans, or cotton-drilling, all 250-450 lb/row
attachment

Harvesting Mower only 1 dhp/ft; 0.5 PTOhp/ft

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