CEREALS

AND CEREAL PRODUCTS

INTRODUCTION
 The cereal grains are seeds of the grass family.
 The principle cereal crops are rice, wheat, maize or corn, jowar, ragi
and bajra.
 The term cereal is not limited to these but also flours, meals,
breads and alimentary pastes or pasta.
Structure
• The overall structure of all cereal grains is basically similar differing
from one cereal to another in detail. The percentage of endosperm,
germ and bran of cereal are 83, 14 and ½, and 2 and ½ respectively.
• BRAN OR PERICARP: the outer layer, epidermis of the cereal consists
of thin walled long rectangular cells. The innermost layer of pericarp
tears during the ripening of seed and in the mature grain they
represented by a layer of branching hypha-like-cells called tube cells.
• ALEURONE CELL LAYER: the endosperm is surrounded by one or
more layers of cells known as aleurone.The cells contain about 20
percent of protein, oil and mineral matter.
• Endosperm: the endosperm consists of cells of various sizes, shapes and
different composition. The endosperm cells contain mostly of starch and
protein.
• Embryo: the germ or embryo consists of many parts. It is separated from
endosperm by scutellum which has the function of mobilizing stored food
in the endosperm and transmitting them to the embryo when the germ
needs.
Composition and Nutritive value
• Energy: cereals are the main source of energy, contributing 70-80 percent of
the requirement. 100 gms give more than 340kcal energy.
• Carbohydrate: 80% of dry matter of cereals is CHO. The 2 carbohydrate
present are crude fibre and soluble carbohydrate. The fibre constituents are
cellulose, hemicellulose and pentosans which are concentrated in the bran
layers. Of the soluble CHO, starch is the most important CHO in all cereals.
Small quantities of dextrin and sugar are also present.
• Protein: the protein content of different cereals varies.rice contains less
amount of protein compared to other cereals.the protein content of different
varieties of the same cereal also varies.proteins are found in all the tissues of
the cereal grain. Higher concentrations occur in the embryo, scutellum and
aleurone layer than in the endosperm, pericarp and testa.
cereals contain 6-12% protein, which is generally deficient in lysine. They
provide more than 50% of protein requirement as they are consumed in large
quantities. Among cereals, rice protein is of better quality than the others.
Cereals, when consumed with pulses, the protein quality improves due to mutual
supplementation. Cereals are deficient in lysine and rich in methionine. Pulses
are deficient in methionine and rich in lysine. Hence there is improvement in
protein quality of both proteins.

• Lipids: lipids are present to the extent of 1-2% in wheat and rice, and 3% in
maize. More lipids are present in germ and bran than in other parts of the
grain. Wheat germs contain lipids 6-11% and bran 3-5% and endosperm 0.8-
1.5%.
• Minerals: about 95% of the minerals are the phosphates and sulphates of
potassium, magnesium and calcium. A considerable part of phosphorous in
cereals is present in the form of phytin. Phosphorous and calcium present in
In phytin are not available for absorption. Phytates present in cereals decrease
the absorption of iron. Unrefined cereals contain more phytates than refined or
polished cereals. On germination of the grains, the phytate content reduces due
to enzymatic breakdown and iron availability is improved. Cereals are poor
sources of calcium and iron. Ragi is a source of calcium and iron. Millets ( ragi,
bajra, jowar ) are rich in minerals and fibre. The iron content of wheat is
increased when it is rolled under iron rollers.

• Vitamins: whole grain cereals are an important source of B vitamins in our

diet. Since most of these vitamins are in the outer bran, refining or polishing
the grains reduce B vitamin content. Parboiling which includes soaking in
water and steaming of paddy results in seeping of vitamins present in outer
layer into the grain. Maids has less vitamin B than whole wheat flour.
• Enzymes: certain grains contain many enzymes and of these the amylases,
proteases, lipases and oxido reductases are of importance. Upon germination
alpha amylase activity increases.
Specific cereals
• WHEAT:
• The wheat produced in the country belongs to triticum aestivem -
95%, triticum diccocum ( 1 per cent ) species which are used for
bakery,pasta and traditional products.
Composition
CARBOHYDRATE:
• Distribution of carbohydrates in wheat fraction is given
CARBOHYDRATE ENDOSPERM GERM BRAN

STARCH 95.8 31.5 14.1

SUGAR 1.5 36.4 7.6

CELLULOSE 0.3 16.8 35.2

HEMICELLULOSE 2.4 15.3 43.1

PROTIENS:
its content depends on the variety grown, climate and soil conditions.
Proportions of different proteins in wheat grain as percentage of total
protein are:
Albumin - 5-10
Globulin - 5-10
Prolamine - 40-50
Glutelin – 40-50
Wheat proteins are rich in glutamic acid and low in tryptophan. Glutamic
acid and aspartic acid are present in the amide form as glutamine and
asparagine. The high concentration of amide is important in determining
of the gluten. The bran and the germ protein have a higher content of
essential amino acids than the inner endosperm proteins.
Thus, the biological value of endosperm proteins is much less than
that of the whole wheat protein.
Acarbose, an oligosaccharide present in wheat is a competitive
inhibitor of sucrose and pancreatic amylase. It lowers the postprandial
blood glucose rise.

MILLING OF WHEAT
wheat is consumed mostly in the form of flour obtained by milling the
grain while a small quantity is converted into breakfast foods such as
wheat flakes and puffed wheat. Indian wheats are hard and the
moisture content is usually 8-10 per cent.
Various steps are involved in making a flour:
The traditional procedure for milling wheat in Indian has been stone grinding to obtain
whole wheat flour. In modern milling, the wheat is subjected to cleaning to remove
various types of impurities together with damaged kernels.
* Vibrating screen: this removes bits of straw and other coarse materials and second
removes foreign materials like seeds.
* Aspirator : it lifts off lighter impurities in the wheat. The stream of grain is directed
across screens while air sucks off the dust and lighter particles.
* Disc separator: after the aspirator it moves into a disc separator consisting of discs
revolving on a horizontal axis. The surface of the disc indented to catch individual grains
of wheat but reject larger or smaller material.
* Scourer: the wheat then moves into the scourer, a machine in which beaters attached
to a central shaft throw the wheat violently against the surrounding drum, buffing each
kernel and breaking off the kernel hairs.
* Magnetic separator : the stream of wheat next passes over a magnetic
separator that pulls out iron and steel particles contaminated during
harvesting.
* Washer stoner: High –speed rotators spin the wheat in the wheat bath.
Excess water is thrown out by centrifugal force. Stones drop to the bottom
and are removed. Lighter material float off leaving only the clean wheat.
* Tempering : wheat is tempered, before the start of grinding, the process
in which moisture is added. Tempering aids in separation of the bran from
the endosperm and helps to provide constant controlled amount of
moisture and temperature are three important factors in tempering with
different requirements of wheat tend to be brittle and tempering toughens
the bran coat to permit more complete so that floury particles break more
freely in milling.
* Entoleter : discs revolting at high speed in the scourer aspirator hurl the
wheat against finger like pins. The impact cracks down any unsound kernel
which are reject.
* Grinding bin: the “ first break “rolls of a mill and are corrugated rather
than smooth, break into coarse particles.
* Sifter: the broken particles of wheat and bran go into a box like sifter
where they are shaken through a series of cloth or screens to separate
larger from the smaller particles. Larger particles are shaken off from the
top by leaving the final flour to shift towards the bottom.
* Purifier: the top fractions and particles of endosperm graded by size are
carried to separate purifiers. In a purifier a controlled flow of air lifts off
bran particles while cloth or screen separate and grade coarse fractions by
size and qualities.
• The down purifier: four or five additional break rolls with successively final
corrugations and each followed by a sifter are usually used to rework the
coarse stock from the sifter and reduce the wheat particles granular
middlings as free from bran as possible. Germ particles being somewhat
plastic will be flattened by a later passage through the smooth reduction
rolls and tend to be easily separated.

• The process is repeated over and over again. Sifters , purifiers reducing rolls
until the maximum amount of flour is separated consisting of atleast 72% of
wheat.
 PRODUCTS OF WHEAT
• WHOLE WHEAT FLOUR: contains the finely ground bran, endosperm
and germ of the kernel. Whole wheat products have a distinct flavor than
those made from white flour. Because of higher fat content of the germ,
whole wheat flour is more difficult to keep and sometimes becomes
rancid in storage under poor conditions.

• MAIDA: the bran and germ are separated in making white flour or maida.
Maida bakes more uniformly into a loaf of a greater volume and it is
more bland in taste and more easily digested. It can be stored in an
airtight container in a refrigerator.
• SEMOLINA: it is coarsely ground endosperm and its chemical composition
is similar to that of white flour. It is used in the manufacture of macaroni
products. It is roasted before storing to save it from insects and worms.

• MACARONI PRODUCTS: these products are also called pasta or alimentary

pastes. These products include macaroni. Spaghetti, vermicelli and noodles.
The main ingredient in the macaroni group of products is a special durum
flour of high gluten content. Durum wheat is used because of its yellow
amber colour, nutty flavor and also because they hold their shape and firm
texture when cooked. The starch endosperm of wheat is coarsely ground
into semolina which is made with water into a thick dough.
• MALTED WHEAT: the process of malting consists of following steps:
1.Good quality grain steeped in cold water for 36 hours in warm climate with two
or three changes of water.
2.The steeped grain is spread on wire mesh trays of 2-3” thickness which are kept
in a stand. The germination is allowed to proceed for 3 days in a warm climate.
During germination analyses and proteases are formed.
3.Germinated grain is allowed to slow dry during which amalyses act on starch,
hydrolyzing them. The drying should be at a low temperature to conserve as much
of the enzyme activity as possible. During drying, the water soluble carbohydrates
and nitrogen (peptones and peptides) increase. The characteristic malt flavor is
developed. The malt is dried to a moisture content of about 13 percent.

• GLUTAMIC ACID: it is derived from wheat. A familiar compound of glutamic acid

is “monosodium glutamate”, a salt like product generally available and used to
bring out the flavor of other foods or seasoning.
• WHEAT GERM: wheat germ is about 2-3% of wheat grain. It has a high
nutritional quality, comparable to animal proteins. Presently this germ is not
separated during milling, as it has a poor shelf life of only a few days andis lost
in bran fraction. Commercially germ samples contain 25-30 % shelf life. Germ
can be used in bakery products and in weaning foods.

• WHEAT BRAN: it increases the stool weight by increasing the water holding
capacity of the bran. Wheat bran prevents constipation and may lower the risk
of colon cancer.
 RICE
• Rice contributes to 43% of total food grain production and 46% of total
cereal production. It is a staple diet.
COMPOSITION:
It is influenced by genetic and environmental factors. The germ, the pericarp
and aleurone layers which are richer than endosperm in nutrient like protein,
minerals and vitamins are separted from grain during milling along with the
husk.

 Carbohydrate: the major CHO of rice is starch which is 72-75%. The amylose
content of starch varies according to the grain type. The longer grain and
superior types containing upto 17.5%amylose while some coarse type are
completely devoid of it.
Rice also contains free sugars like fructose, glucose, sucrose, dextrin and
raffinose. The fibre content of rice is hemicellulose made of pentoses, arabinose,
and xylose.

• Proteins: the protein content of rice is 7%. It is much lower than that of wheat.
Glutelin which is also known as oryzenin is gthe principle protein of rice. Rice
also contains small quantities of albumin, globulin and prolamines.the nutritive
value of rice protein is of high order being superior to that of the wheat and
other cereal products. The biological value of rice protein is 80% whereas wheat
protein has 66 and maize protein has 50.

• MINERALS: in mineral contents , rice resembles other cereals. Most minerals

located in rice are in the pericarp and germ. Polished rice lacks calcium and
iron. Coloured rice has more minerals than white rice.phosphorous content is 4%
is high and it is present as phyticacid.
• ENZYMES: rice contains amylases, proteases, lipases, oxidases,, peroxidases
and phenolases.. On storage the oxidases activity of ruice remains constant
but the amylase, lipase, peroxidase activities decrease. The activity of the
alpha amylase in fresh is probably responsible for its sticky consistency after
cooking. This enzymes get inactivated during storage and cooked grains get
separated easily.

• PIGMENTS: coloured rice contains anthocyanins and carotenoids.

 MILLING
• Before milling paddy is cleaned to remove small and large heavy impurities..
Paddy on milling yields hulls 20%, bran 8%, polishing 2% and rice 70%.
• Padding is milled by home pounding or in mechanised rice mills.
• The process of milling involves the following steps:
• Rice is passed through 2 stone or rubber discs rotating at different speeds and
by shearing action on the grain, the hull is pulled away. The whole kernel
from which the hulls have been removed is known as brown rice.
• This is the milled in a machine called pearler to remove coarse outer layers of
bran and germ by a process of rubbing , resulting in unpolished milled rice.
Some amount of breakage of rice occurs in this milling.
• Unpolished rice is liable to develop rancidity and so it is next polished in a
brush machine which removes the aleurone layer and yields ‘polished rice’.
• Sometimes the polished rice is further treated in a device known as trumbol
to give a coating of sugar and talc to produce a brighter shine on the grains.
• Rice is separated from the broken kernels. Large kernels are called as second
heads, medium ones are called screenings, smallest ones are called the
brewers rice.

The degree of milling determines the amount of nutrient removed:

• Losses during milling can be compensated by the following processes, the loss
of nutrients can be reduced. Rice that are under milled do not have the customary white
lustre and they are more subject to insect manifestation and flavor deterioration than
white rice is.
• A second method is that of increasing vitamin retention by processing the rough rice prior
to milling . This is done by parboiling which is commercially known as converted rice.
• Another method of remedying the losses occurring in the milling of rice is the artificial
enrichment of the grain. A premix has been developed in which the rice is wetted with a
solution of thiamine and niacin, then dried. A second coating of iron pyro phosphate is
distributed on the rice . The rice premix is highly resistant to washing , cooking and storage
losses.
 Parboiling
• Half of India’s rice is parboiled. Parboiling is particularly good in the case of
coarse and medium rice of soft structure because such rices suffer excessive
breakage when milled raw.
• Parboiling involves soaking paddy in water for a short time followed by
heating once or twice in steam and drying before milling.

• CONVENTIONAL PROCESS:
• 1. steeping paddy in cold water for 2-3 days in large cement tnks.
• 2. steaming of the soaked paddy for 5-10 mins.
• 3. drying in the sun.
• During soaking of paddy in cold water for 2-3 days , fermentation sets in and
off flavour develops in the grain. The moulds present in the grain also grow
and may produce toxic metabolites. Ex: aflatoxin may be produced from
aspergillus flavus.

• HOT SOAKING PROCESS: the hot soaking process, developed at the Central
Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore consists of following:
• 1. soaking of paddy in water at 65-70 degree for 3-4hours.
• 2. draining of water and steaming of soaked paddy in the same vessel for 5-10
mins.
• 3. drying of the paddy in the sun or in mechanical driers.

• During parboiling , the milled rice is becomes slightly shorter and broader.
 Advantages of parboiling
• Dehusking of parboiled rice is easy.
• Losses of water soluble nutrients due to washing of rice is less in parboiled rice
compared to raw rice.
• Parboiling improves digestability and Protein efficiency ratio is compared to raw rice.
• Grain becomes tougher resulting in reduced losses during milling. This benefit is due to
healing of all kernel defects like cracks and chalkiness by parboiling. By this, parboiling
eliminates breakage completely.
• Milled parboiled rice has greater resistance to insects and fungus.
• Loss of nutrients due to the removal of husks and bran in milling are decreased. During
harvesting the vitamin and mineral present in hull (outer covering of the paddy) and
bran coating dissolved and seeped into the endosperm. Part of the scutellum and germ
which are rich in vitamin b gets fixed to the grain and hence the losses of b vitamin is
less.
• Parboiled rice will not turn into glutenous mass when cooked.
• Parboiled rice swells more when cooked to the desired softness.
• Parboiled stabilizes the oil content of the bran. The discrete oil globules in
thee aleurone layer of native rice grain are ruptured into a band by parboiling.

• DISADVANTAGES OF PARBOILING:
• Sometimes it has an unpleasant smell and change in colour and hence not
preferred.
• Modern methods of parboiling have eliminated this problem.
• By controlling soaking and steaming, coloyr and cooking quality can be
maintained.
 Rice products
• RICE STARCH: rice starch granules are small and are embedded in a protein
matrix. To separate them from protein , broken rice is steeped for 24hours in
5 times its weight of 0.3 % caustic soda. The caustic soda treated granules
are washed, dried and ground into flour. The flour is then mixed with 10times
weight of caustic soda solution. This removes gluten. After 24 hours the
starch settles down is removed, washed and dried. Rice starch is used in
puddings, ice creams and custard powder. It forms a tender opague gel.
• RICE BRAN: bran includes several sub layers within the pericarp and the
aleurone layer . Breakage of the white rice kernel during milling also results
in small fragments of the endosperm becoming a part of the bran fraction.
These broken fragment are primarily starch and normally contain 10-12% of
bran.
• Parched rice products
• Parched paddy or puffed rice
• Flaked rice
• Basmati rice
• Aromatic rice

• Advantages of parched rice products:

• Easly digestible and hence good for old people and small children.
• Readily available to eat due to faster cooking.
• It adds variety in the diet.
• Since iron pans are used iron content is increased.
• Improves flavour and texture.
 AGEING
• the ageing process is characterised by an initial increase followed by steady
decrease in the power of hydration. this is due to a slow but steady decrease in
the solubility of amylose , starch and protein and in the physical loss of solids
during cooking, a slow but steady decrease in the gelatinization temperature a
decrease in the intrinsic viscosity of the starch and in the settling rate of a rice
flour suspension, an initial decrease followed by a steady decrease in paste
viscosity and a steady increase in the stickiness of cooked rice.
• These results suggest that the rice grain or its constituents become more
organized or reinforced as they age.
 Millets
• The are hardy plants grown in areas where there is very low rainfall and poor
irrigation facilities . Apart from maize and sorgum, major millet crops are:
• Bajra- pearl millet
• Italian millet- foxtail millet
• Little millet- samai
• Kodo millet- varagu
• Finger millet- ragi
 Maize or corn
• Nutritive value:
• Maize contains 11% protein.
• Maize protein is deficient in amino acids like tryptophan and lysine
• Maize is a good source of carotene. It also contains thiamine and folic acid in
appreciable amounts.

• PROCESSING: 3 major processes are:

• DRY MILLING: grinding of the whole grain stone or roller mill to produce
flour or meal is simple method used worldwide when the ground products
are to be consumed shortly after processing. Oil from broken germ cells is
easily oxidized to produce rancid odour and flavour.
• WET MILLING: the 2 most important steps of wet milling are high fructose
corn syrup and ethanol.
• ALKALI PROCESSING: in this maize is mixed with water and lime and cooked
at 90 degree celcius for 50 mins. The cooked maize is then steeped for 14
hours before being washed with fresh water to remove residual alkali and
other waste material from maize.
• The washed maize is milled to a gritty textured product called ‘masa’. This is
rolled into flat cakes and baked in an oven for 2 mins to produce the
traditional tortilla.
• Masa can also be deep fried to produce tortilla chips or maize chips or it can
be dried and finally milled to produce a mass flour.
 Products of maize
• Degerminated flour: consists of mostly of the endosperm and has low
content of B vitamins. It is used by brewers as a starch medium for the action
of barley malt in the preparation of wort for the production of beer.
• CORN GERM OIL: it can be extracted by solvent extraction. It has high level
of linolenic fatty acid and its excellent flavour.
Fat content of maize is 3.6% and oil extracted from it I can be efined to
produce high quality vegetable oil for cooking or food use.
• Popcorn: the popping of popcorn is a method of starch cookery. As the kerels
of popcorn are heated the water vapour within them expands increasing the
pressure until it is sufficient to make the kernels explode or pop. Desirable
qualities in popcorn are good flavour , tenderness, the absence of
objectionable hulls and high popping expansion. To make popcorn hard
corneous endosperm and 13.5 % moisture is required.
• CORN STARCH; it is made by a process of wet milling in which the hull and
germ are removed, the corn ground and mixed with water. The semi liquid
material is separated by passing it over sieves or centrifuginf it. The starch
settles out whilst most of the protein remain suspended.
• The starch is then washed dried and powdered. It is widely used in
inexpensive, lacks characteristic flavour and cooks to a smooth and almost
clear paste in water or other clear liquid and superior to wheat flour or potato
starch.
• Corn starch flavoured with vanilla and edible colours is sold as custard
powder.
 Jowar
• Jowar or sorghum millet is grown in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, uttar Pradesh and tamil nadu.
• It is used as roti or bhakri.
• NUTRIVE VALUE: jowar is rich in protein but quality is not as good as rice
quality.
• Lysine, methionine and cysteine are present in low amounts in jowar. In low
amounts in jowar. Some varieties of jowar contain excessive amounts of
amino acids called leucine.
• Jowar is rich in CHO and b complex vitamins. It is poor in vitamin A and rich in
dietary fiber.
 Processing
• Pearling involves wet milling where top layers bearing the colour and fibre
removed by abrasion. Polished grain with low fibre results in loss of nearly
20% protein, 50% minerals and 33% thiamine. Milling removes the proteins
in the bran and the germ, which are nutritionally superior to the protein
present elsewhere in the grain.
• Whole jowar recipes significantly lowered plasma glucose levels than
dehulled jowar reipes in non-insulin dependant diabetic persons.
• Many infant foods are manufactured commercially using malted jowar.
 Ragi
• Ragi is also known as finger millet. The major proteins in ragi are prolamins and
glutelins and thy appear to be adequate in all the essential amino acids.
• Ragi is rich in minerals especially calcium. It is also rich in fibre. It is rich in
phytate and tannin and hence interfere with mineral availability. It contains B
vitamins but is poor in B 2.
• MILLING: ragi can be milled by wet conditioning. It can be steamed followed
by milling in a hammer or plate mill or a roller flour mill.
• MALTING: compared to other millets, ragi is most suitable from the
standpoint of product quality and enzymes release for malting. The malted
ragi flour can be used along with germinated green gram flour to formulate a
high calorie dense weaning food having excellent nutritional qualities. Ragi
flour can be used with milk beverages.
• Parboiling of ragi helps in the quality of ragi dumpling by eliminating its slimy
texture. Ragi is used as gruel, dumpling , roti, dosa or porridge.
 BAJRA
• Bajra has same amount of protein as wheat. The proteins contain high
proportion of prolamine, globuline and albumins.
• Among amino acids tryptophan is high and lysine is low.
• Bajra is rich in iron, thiamin, riboflavin and niacin.
• Pearling of bajra to about 8% polish, leaves most of the germs intact and the
nutritive value is not seriously affected. Pearliing improves appearance and
taste of the products. It is dehusked and cooked in the same way of rice. Flour
is made to bhakri. The grain after it is parched is somewhat similar to popcorn.
• The grain is suitable for preparation of malt.
STORAGE AND INFESTATION
• Flours less than 13% moisture prevent growth of microorganisms. Above 15% moulds
grow. Above 17% moisture moulds and bacteria grow. Such materials are stored in
bulk or in containers so as to keep out vermin, especially insects and rodents.
• MAIDA AND RAVA can be stored in refridgerator to prevent infestation. Bakery
products such as breads, cakes, pastries, pies contain enough moisture to be subject
to spoilage unless preservatives are added.
• As a result of infestation a part of grain is eaten away by insects and the taste, flavour
and hygienic quality is affected. PER of proteins and B vitamins are affected.. These
changes are due to increased fatty acids and uric acid production due to their
enzymic activity making it unfit for human consumption.
• Pyrethrin and malathonin are used to prevent infestation.. Volatile oils from Mentha
Spicata (mint) can be painted on container or mixed with seeds for short term usage.
 CEREAL PROTEIN
• The unique presence of glutelin and gliadin makes it suitable for certain recipes.
Glutelin is the protein which gives toughness and rubberiness to gluten. Gliadin
gives elasticity. Glutenin is a much larger molecule than gliadin. Greater amount of
gliadin, softer will be the gluten.
• During the mixing of a dough the long strands of glutenin evidently becomes
aligned in the direction of mixing and associated with gliadin molecules to form a
strong elastic uniform film that envelopes the starch granules in the dough. In The
presence of lipids, water and with mechanical agitation , the protein fraction
becomes a tough elastic complex termed gluten which is capable of retaining gases
and by doing so a leavened product is obtained. Due to its elastic property , the
dough can be rolled to prepare chapathi or puri. Cereals other than wheat cannot
form a large light loaf and cannot be rolled since gluten is not developed.
• Baked gluten has 85% protein , 8% lipids and variable amounts of starch depending
on the thoroughness of washing. Baking the gluten shows it expands with steam
and coagulates when heated to form the structure of the baked product.
 Factors that affect gluten formation
• MECHANICAL ACTION: if the dough is undermixed, enough gluten is not
developed to retain the gas well. With the result the loaf is very heavy and poor
in volume. Over kneading declines the elasticity of gluten and the dough
becomes sticky and the volume of the loaf poor. In making chapatis, too little or
too much gluten.
• PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES: these are a group of enzymes present in wheat flour
which catalyze the hydrolysis of proteins. They are also present in malted flour
and yeast. Since the strength of the gluten depends on the intact protein, any
reaction which hydrolyses part of the protein reduces the amount of gluten.
Doughs of low proteolytic activity are tough and inelastic. It does not machine
well and it also produces loaves of poor volume since the dough will not stretch
around the gas bubbles.
• The quantity of proteolytic enzymes must be balanced so that enough hydrolysis
occurs to produce an elastic gluten but not so much that gluten is sticky.
• OXIDISING AGENTS: potassium bromate, potassium iodate are dough
conditioners. Chlorine, chlorine dioxide and nitrosyl chloride, bleach, mature and
improve the flour. Fermentation, oxidation, kneading change the bonding of the
protein molecule. Although amount of oxidation is small, sufficient must be
present to yield gluten strong enough to retain the gas formed but not so tough
that it will be unable to stretch around the gas bubbles.
• OTHER FACTORS: raw milk decreases the proteolytic enzymes and makes
gluten sticky. Heating the milk to 82.2 degree celcius for 30 mins has no
detrimental effect on gluten strength. Milk should be scalded before use in
dough. In general, calcium salts present in the hard water tend to increase the
elasticity of gluten. NaCl likewise affects gluten. Acids also alter gluten strength.
CEREAL STARCH
• Starch is the main carbohydrate in cereals. All sources of starch
consists of linear polymers of glucose which are tightly coiled in the
form of granules. These have a characteristic shape and size
depending upon the plant from which they are derived. Sago is
gelatinized starch globules prepared from tapioca starch.
• Two different types of chains may be distinguished in a starch
molecule. The linear is termed amylose and the branched
amylopectin. Amylose is soluble in water
EFFECT OF MOIST HEAT
GELATINISATION:
• Starch granules do not dissolve readily in cold water but they will
form to a temporary suspension with the starch tending to settle
out as soon as the mixture is allowed to stand. When heated with
water, the intramolecular hydrogen bonding is broken and grains
absorb water and a) swell, b) the viscosity increases until a peak
thickness is reached and c) the translucency of the mixture also
increases.
• As the temperature increases of the starch water mixture, the
hydrogen bonding decreases for both the starch- starch bonds and
water- water bonds and the size of the particles diminishes.
Increasing water molecules begin to penetrate freely between the
starch molecules when their kinetic energy becomes great enough
to overcome the attraction between starch molecules.
GELATINISATION TEMPERATURE:
A starch mixture will start to thicken somewhere between 70 degree
to 80 degree Celsius but complete gelatinization will not occur until
the mixture is close to or at the boiling point. This will vary with the
type of the starch and size of the grain. The gelatinization
temperature range is characteristic of a starch and serves as an
additional index for identification.
FACTORS AFFECTING GELATINISATION:
• Temperature and time of heating: Starch pastes may be prepared
most quickly by bringing them to a boiling temperature over direct
heat, constantly stirring as they thicken and simmering them for
approximately one minute.
• Proportions of starch: Most concentrated dispersions of starch
show higher viscosity at lower temperatures than do less
concentrated mixtures because of the larger number of granules
that can swell in the early stages of gelatinization.
• Types of starches: The starch vary in their thickening power. When
starch gelatinize earlier compared to rice, sorghum or corn starch.
Corn or sorghum starch give opaque pastes of higher viscosity than
wheat starch at the same concentration. Waxy corn starch (more
amylopectin) does not form a gel and remains clear because of lack
of amylose. Flour that has been browned has less thickening power
as some of the starch molecules had been converted to dextrins.
• Agitation or stirring: Stirring while cooking a starch mixture is
desirable in the early stages for uniform consistency. However, if
agitation is too intense or continued too long it accelerates the
breakdown or rupturing of the starch and decreases viscosity and
may give a pasty mouth feel.
• Addition of other ingredients:
Sugar: The sugar added decreases the thickness of the cooked product.
Sugar limits the swelling of starch grains while competing with them for
water. In addition, it elevates the temperature at which starch grains begin to
thicken a liquid
Acid: Acid in the form of vinegar or lime juice reduces the thickness of hot
starch paste and the firmness of the cooled paste. The decrease in thickness
and stiffness has been attributed in part to fragmentation of swollen granules
and hydrolysis of starch molecules. Acid and heat catalyze the hydrolysis of
starch to dextrins. Acid hydrolyzed starch, when it is boiled hydrates at lower
temperature than the unmodified starch. Acid thinned starch is often used in
confectionary industry.
Fats and proteins: The presence of fats and proteins which tend to coat
starch granules and thereby delay hydration also lower the rate of viscosity
development.
 CHANGES IN COOKED STARCHES
• Gel formation: Gelatin takes place on cooling of the starch paste after the starch
granules have been gelatinize. Gel formation in cooked starch paste is a gradual
process that continues over a several hour period as the paste cools. Waxy varieties
of starch without amylose do not form gels. Starches containing relatively large
amounts of amylose such as corn starch, form firmer gels than starches with a
somewhat lower concentration of amylose, such as tapioca.
Many starch molecules are disrupted during the process of gelatinization as the
starch granules swell. Some of the molecules of amylose, the linear starch fraction
leach out from the granule. Two or more of these chains may form a juncture point,
creating a new bond which gradually leads to more bonds and more extensively
ordered regions. This bonding produces a three- dimensional structure that results in
the development of a gel with the amylose molecules forming a network that holds
water in its meshes. The rigidity of the starch mixture is increased.
• Retrogradation: As starch thickened mixture continues to stand after
gel formation is complete, the process of retrogradation may occur.
Additional bonds are formed between amylose molecules- as it was in
the original state. Structural transformation occurs during storage. As
starch pastes are cooled and stored, the starch becomes progressively
less soluble. Starch becoming less soluble, like in its original state, is
called retrogradation. Amylose undergoes retrogradation at more rapid
pace than does amylopectin. Freshly baked chapatis are soft, pliable
and elastic but on storage become hard and brittle. Stale bread reverts
to freshly baked bread when the bread in a moist state is heated at 95
degree Celsius. Surfactants may also be helpful in restoring original
fitness.
• Syneresis: Some of these molecules aggregate in a particular area in
an organized, crystalline manner. As the amylose molecules pull
together more tightly, the gel network shrinks and water is pushed
out of the gel. The process of weeping called syneresis results from
the increased molecular association as the starch mixture ages
ultimately an ordered crystalline structure develops.
EFFECT OF DRY HEAT
DEXTRINISATION:
Dry heat also brings changes to starch granules through a process
known as dextrinization. If a starch product is subjected to dry heat
carbohydrate compounds called dextrins are formed. Extensive
dextrinization reduces the thickening power of starches. Dextrins
which are smaller units of starch breakdown can be easily digested
by the body. Chapatis, bread toast in almost all mixed cereals and
pulses dextrinization takes place.
FERMENTED PRODUCTS
Fermentation as a general term which covers aerobic and anaerobic
changes brought about by micro- organisms and includes the
production of alcohols, acids and similar reactions. This process also
produces heat and copious amounts of carbon dioxide as by-
products. The organisms concerned in fermentation are of two main
types. Bacteria and fungi are generally involved in fermentation. The
bacteria concerned the fermentation are lactic, acetic, butyric and
other acid forming groups. The fungi concerned in fermentation are
the yeasts.
Advantages of fermentation:
• It improves the flavor and texture of the product.
• Nutrients are increased like vitamins B and C.
• Fermented products are easily digestible.
• It decreases the pH and inhibits the harmful micro- organisms.
• Certain harmful substances like trypsin inhibitors and phytins are
decreased during fermentation.
• Variety in the diet is increased.
Fermented products based on cereals are salted biscuits, bread, idli,
dosa and dhokla.
Biscuits: The biscuits are classified based on the characteristics of the
dough: short dough and hard dough biscuits. The ‘Gluco’ type sweet
biscuits are made from short dough while semi- sweet or salted are
made from hard dough. Fermented dough is used for the preparation
of salted biscuits.
Salted Biscuits: These are made from fermented dough. The dough
made with yeast is fermented for 18 hours. Shaping is done by using
sheeting and cutting machine. The dough is laminated and fat is
applied during lamination. After giving number of laminations, the
dough is cut and then baked. The hot oil is sprayed while it comes out
of the oven to obtain the surface screen. The crispiness of biscuits
mainly depends on the amount of fat applied.
Bread: The percentage of different ingredients for bread making is
giving below.

Ingredients Percentage
Flour 100
Non- fat dairy milk 4
Sugar 6-8
Shortening 3-4
Water 60-65
Yeast, compressed 2
Salt 2
The role of ingredients in making bread:
Flour: Gluten makes the dough easy to handle and permits a large
expansion during fermentation and in early stages of baking. Glutenin
controls the elasticity of the gluten and the time required for dough
development while gliadin proteins are responsible for loaf volume.
Water: It is important for gluten formation. It dissolves sugar and salt
and serves as a dispersion media for yeast cell. It brings about partial
gelatinization of starch during baking. Some leavening also occurs as a
result of the steam produced from water.
Milk: It increases the food value of bread. It improves flavor (non- fat dry
milk is better than whole milk for this purpose) and makes the crust
browner. Four per cent of weight of flour used.
Salt: It is used as a flavoring agent. Excess salt has a retarding effect on
yeast fermentation. It strengthens gluten and controls the rate
fermentation.
Sugar: It is necessary for yeast growth and indirectly for fermentation
process. Brown color of the crust is due to the Malliard reaction between
protein and sugar which occurs during baking. It influences the tenderness
and the volume of baked products, partly by weakening the gluten
structure.
Fats and Oils: They contribute to the flavor. It has a tenderizing effect.
Upto four per cent improves the volume and texture of bread.
Ammonium phosphate and sulphate: They are used as yeast nutrients to
encourage yeast growth and to accelerate the gas production.
Oxidising agents: (Potassium bromate, potassium iodate and calcium
peroxide). They are used to improve the handling characteristic of the
dough and specific volume and the texture of the finished products.
The beneficial action of the oxidizing agents on flour may be due to
oxidation of the- SH group occurring in polypeptide chains to form the
S-S group of cysteine thus making crosslinks between polypeptide
chains and strengthening the gluten.
Propionate: It is added to inhibit the mold growth.
Yeast: It acts as a leavening agent. It acts on sugar to yield carbon
dioxide and alcohol. The acids formed due to fermentation impart a
distinctive flavor.
Bhatura: Method:
• Sieve soda, maida and salt together.
• Add sugar, curds and warm water and
Ingredients:
make soft dough.
Maida 75 g
• Knead the dough till it does not stick to
Salt a pinch
the fingers. Apply melted ghee and
Sugar ¼ tbsp continue kneading till dough becomes
Soda 1/8 tbsp pliable.
Melted ghee ¼ tbsp • Cover it with cloth and leave it to swell
Curds 30 g in a warm place for 3- 4 hours.
Warm water 2-3 tbsp • Divide into 4 to 5 equal parts and roll
Oil for trying thick and fry like puris.
Idli: Dosa: Appam:
Procedure: Procedure: Procedure:
• Parboiled rice and black gram • Parboiled rice and black • To the rice flour yeast, kanji
are soaked separately in gram are soaked together or toddy is added to facilitate
proportion of 3: 1 in the proportion of 4:1 to fermentation.
• They are ground separately. 6:1 • It is allowed to ferment
Black gram dal has to be • Ingredients are ground overnight.
ground into a fine paste and fine and salt is added.
rice has to be coarsely • The batter is poured in a
ground. • It is allowed to ferment kadai and the kadai is tilted
overnight. (it is not handled like dosai).
• The ingredients are mixed
together, salt is added. • Dosas are made with the • It is closed with the lid and
batter. with the steam that is
• Allow it to ferment overnight.
evolved, it is cooked.
• Idlis are made in steamed
perforated containers.
Kali: Dhokla: Rice vadam:
Procedure: Procedure: Procedure:
• Ragi flour is soaked in water. • Rice flour and black gram • The left- over cooked rice
• Next day it is cooked along flour are taken in the is soaked in excess water
with rice (broken) or rice proportion of 3:1 and allowed to ferment
rava. • It is mixed with sour butter overnight.
• It is allowed to ferment milk and allowed to • Water is drained off.
overnight. ferment for six hours. • Rice is mashed and to it is
• And third day it is consumed. • It is steamed in a plate, cut added finely cut onions,
into pieces and seasoned. chilies, lime.
• Made into small vadams
and kept in the sun for
dehydration.
UNFERMENTED PRODUCTS
Cakes:
There are two classes of cakes- shortened and unshortened. The
shortened cakes contain fat as an essential ingredient are leavened
chiefly with baking powder. Unshortened cakes do not contain fat as
a basic ingredient. They are leavened by air or steam.
The ingredients in a cake mixture are flour, egg, milk, sugar,
shortening, leavening agents and flavoring agents.
Role of ingredients in cakes:
Liquid: The liquid used in cakes is mainly or occasionally fruit juices. Egg also
contributes to get a liquid consistency. Aerated drinks are also used
sometimes. Liquid is needed in the cake batter to bring about the hydration
of protein and starch and also to serve as a solvent for chemical leavening
agent, sugar and salt.
Shortening: The fat in the cake batter serves to tenderize the gluten and
starch particles rendering crumb tender. The fat serves another important
function as it entraps air during the creaming process thereby contributing t
the leavening of the batter and increases the volume of the baked cake.
Butter is still one of the most popular fats used in shortened cakes. Its chief
attributes being its food value, flavor and color. The disadvantages of using
butter as a shortening agent for cake is its relative high cost, low creaming
quality compared to the hydrogenated fat.
Sugar: It has a tendering on the gluten and egg protein of the batter.
Greater the amount of sugar, the more pronounced is its effect. A
batter with too much sugar will produce a cake of small volume with
sugary crumb. A finely granulated sugar has the advantage of blending
completely with the other ingredients. The function of sugar in a
floured mixture is to sweeten, to develop gluten strength, to develop
color and crispiness. It acts as a creaming agent with fat.
Eggs: Eggs form foam when beaten, contain air which serves as a
leavening agent. The protein forms an extensive network which is
coagulated by heat and contributes to the cake structure. The heat of
the oven coagulates the egg protein which is in a network of protein
and capable of maintaining the increased volume of mixture. The
lecithin in egg yolk acts as an emulsifying agent of the fat in the batter.
It also adds color and flavor to the baked products.
Leavening agents: The leavening agent in cake is baking powder which
has sodium bicarbonate and acid. Baking powder in the moist batter at
the oven temperature forms carbon dioxide and causes leavening. Air
incorporated to the flour mixture through creaming of fat and sugar also
acts as leavening agent.
• Cakes are best made from soft wheat flour containing about 7- 8.5 per
cent protein and highest amount of starch. Gluten forms a part of the
network of the cake structure. Gluten, egg and milk protein in the batter
stretch around gas bubbles and not allow them to coalesce or escape
from the top. The bleaching agents and maturing agents used in the
preparation of cake flour have some tenderizing effect on the gluten.
The leavening agent in cake is baking powder. Baking powder in the
moist batter at the oven temperature forms carbon dioxide and causes
leavening.
Points to remember while cooking cereals:
• Agitation: Flour should be added slowly and should be stirred well so that
before the particles gelatinize they get dispersed well.
• Flakes and granules: Instead of flour, when flakes and granules are used
lump formation is less. The particles are bigger and do not gelatinize
immediately when out in hot water hence no lump formation occurs.
• Paste: Cold water paste is made with flour before adding to hot water.
Since water is around each particle already gelatinized starts surrounding
all particles.
• Below the boiling point: Cereal flour can be added to below the boiling
point so that all the particles get dispersed before gelatinizing.
• Addition of fat: If the particles are fried in fat, all the particles get a
coating of fat and stickiness and lump formation is avoided.

• By dry roasting: When starch particles are roasted, dextrinization

takes place, hence gelatinization of the outer paarticles is reduced
hence lump formation in avoided.