Electrical Engineering Autosaved

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Electrical engineering
 is one of the newer branches of engineering, and dates back to the late 19th century.
It is the branch of engineering that deals with the technology of electricity. Electrical
engineers work on a wide range of components, devices and systems, from tiny
microchips to huge power station generators.
Applications of Electrical Engineering
Radio Frequency
1
Radiation is the emission (sending out) of energy from any source. X-rays
are an example of radiation, but so is the light that comes from the sun
and the heat that is constantly coming off our bodies.
e.g. Satellites, X-ray
2. Electronics
branch of physics and electrical engineering that deals with the emission,
behavior, and effects of electrons and with electronic devices. Electronics
encompasses an exceptionally broad range of technology.
e.g various applications such as cellphones, laptops, Inverters
3. Power
Covers the generation, transmission, distribution and sale of electrical

power to the general public and industry.
e.g. Hydropower, Solar Power, Thermal Power. Etc.
4. Controls
A physical interconnection of devices that influences the behaviour of
other devices or systems. A simple electronic system is made up of an
input, a process, and an output. Both input and output variables to the
system are signals
e.g Building Controls-gates, doors, fire suppression, pumps

5. Instrumentation
Instrumentation is a collective term for measuring instruments that are
used for indicating, measuring and recording physical quantities. The
term has its origins in the art and science of scientific instrument-making.
e.g Sensors , Pressure Switch, GPS, Spirit level, Proximity Sensors
6. Signal processing
Signal processing is an electrical engineering subfield that focuses on

analysing, modifying, and synthesizing signals such as sound, images,
and scientific measurements.
e.g. Radio Signals, Cellphone Signals, Radar, Missile Guidance

Electrical Engineering Definitions
Basic Electrical Engineering - DC Circuits

1. Circuit - A circuit is a closed conducting path through which an electric current can
flow.
2. Parameters - The Various element of an electric circuit are known as

parameters
e.g Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance
e.g Nameplate
3. Current - The flow of electron is known as current, rate of flow of charge (Amps)
4. Voltage - To move the electrons from one point to another point in the particular
direction an external force is required in an electrical circuit. This force is known as
electromotive force (EMF) and it is also known as voltage. (Volts)
5. Resistance - Is the property of a material which opposes the flow or electric current
through it. (Ohms)

6. Loop - It is a closed path electrical circuit
7. Branch - Is that part of a network which represents single circuit

element such as voltage source, resistor, etc.
8. Junction - A junction is a point in any given electrical circuit where

three or more then three branches combined.
9. Node - Is a point in an electrical circuit where two or more elements

are connected is known as node
Circuit Elements
Active and passive components form the two main types of electronic circuit elements. An
active component supplies energy to an electric circuit, and hence has the ability to
electrically control the flow of charge. A passive component can only receive energy,
which it can either dissipate or absorb.
Types of Electronic Components
Electronic elements that make up a circuit are connected together by conductors to form a
complete circuit. If these connecting conductors are ideal conductors (i.e. they have no
resistance) then all parts of the circuit can be classified into two main categories depending
on whether they deliver or absorb energy from the circuit:
Passive components
:
Electrical Symbols are used to represent both active and passive
components. An example of a basic circuit made up of two electronic
elements has been illustrated below:
Active Components
An active component is an electronic component which supplies energy to a circuit. Active elements have the
ability to electrically control electron flow (i.e. the flow of charge). All electronic circuits must contain at least
one active component.
Common examples of active components include:
Voltage Sources
Current sources (e.g. DC Currentsource)
Generators (such as alternators and DC Generators)
All different types of transistors
Diodes
Voltage Sources
A voltage source is an example of an active component in a circuit. When current leaves from the positive
terminal of the voltage source, energy is being supplied to the circuit. As per the definition of an active element,
a battery can also be considered as an active element, as it continuously delivers energy to the circuit during
discharging.
Current Sources
A current source is also considered an active component. The current supplied to the
circuit by an ideal current source is independent of circuit voltage. As a current source is
controlling the flow of charge in a circuit, it is classified as an active element.
Transistors
Although not as obvious as a current or voltage source – transistors are also an active
circuit component. This is because transistors are able to amplify the power of a signal
As this amplification is essentially controlling the flow of charge – transistors are hence
classified as an active component.
Passive Components
A passive component is an electronic component which can only receive energy, which it
can either dissipate, absorb or store it in an electric field or a magnetic field. Passive
elements do not need any form of electrical power to operate.
As the name ‘passive’ suggests – passive devices do not provide gain or amplification.
Passive components cannot amplify, oscillate, or generate an electrical signal.
Common examples of passive components include:
Resistors
Inductors
Capacitors
Transformers
Resistors
A resistor is taken as a passive element since it can not deliver any energy to a circuit. Instead resistors
can only recieve energy which they can dissipate as heat as long as current flows through it.
Inductors
An inductor is also considered as passive element of circuit, because it can store energy in it as a
magnetic field, and can deliver that energy to the circuit, but not in continuous basis. The energy
absorbing and delivering capacity of an inductor is limited and transient in nature. That is why an
inductor is taken as a passive element of a circuit.
Capacitors
A capacitor is considered as a passive element because it can store energy in it as electric field The
energy dealing capacity of a capacitor is limited and transient – it is not actually supplying energy; it is
storing it for later use.
As such it is not considered an active component since no energy is being supplied or amplified
Transformers
A transfomer is also a passive electronic component. Although this can seem surprising
since transformers are often used to raise voltage levels – remember that power is kept
constant.
When transformers step up (or step down) voltage, power and energy remain the same on
the primary and secondary side. As energy is not actually being amplified – a transformer
is classified as a passive element.
Bilateral Elements
Conduction of current in both directions in a circuit element with same magnitude is
termed as a bilateral circuit element. It offers some resistance to current flow in both
directions.
Examples: Resistors, Inductors, capacitors etc.
This figure shows that a bilateral circuit element can conduct from both sides and offer
same resistance for current from either side.
Unilateral Elements
The unilateral circuit element does not offer same resistance to the current of
either direction. The resistance of the unilateral circuit element is different for
forward current than that of reverse current.
Examples: diode, transistor
The figure above shows a diode as a unilateral circuit element. When diode is
forward biased it offers very small resistance and conducts. While it is reverse
biased, it offers very high resistance and doesn’t conduct. The circuit element can be
categorized in another manner, such as lumped and distributed circuit elements.
Lumped Elements
When the voltage across and current through the element don’t vary with dimension of the
element, it is called lumped circuit elements.
Examples: Resistor connected in any electrical circuit
Distributed Elements
When the voltage across and current through the element change with dimensions of the
element, it is called distributed circuit element.
Examples: Resistance of a transmission line. It varies with the length of the line.
Electronic test equipment is used to create signals and capture responses from electronic
devices under test (DUTs). In this way, the proper operation of the DUT can be proven or
faults in the device can be traced. Use of electronic test equipment is essential to any
serious work on electronics systems.
Basic equipment
The following items are used for basic measurement of voltages, currents, and components
in the circuit under test.
1. Voltmeter (Measures voltage
Instrument that measures voltages of either direct or alternating electric current on a scale
usually graduated in volts, millivolts (0.001 volt), or kilovolts (1,000 volts). Many
voltmeters are digital, giving readings as numerical displays. The instruments just described
can also provide readings in analogue form, by moving a pointer that indicates voltage on a
scale, but digital voltmeters generally have a higher order of accuracy than analogue
instruments.
2. Ohmmeter (Measures resistance)

instrument for measuring electrical resistance, which is expressed in ohms. In the simplest
ohmmeters, the resistance to be measured may be connected to the instrument in parallel
or in series
3. Ammeter, e.g. Galvanometer or Milliammeter (Measures current)

Instrument for measuring either direct or alternating electric current, in amperes. An
ammeter can measure a wide range of current values because at high values only a small
portion of the current is directed through the meter mechanism; a shunt in parallel with the
meter carries the major portion.
3. Multimeter e.g., VOM (Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter) or DMM

a measuring instrument that can measure multiple electrical properties. A typical
multimeter can measure voltage, resistance, and current, in which case it is also known as
a volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM), as the unit is equipped with voltmeter, ammeter, and
ohmmeter functionality.
4. LCR meter - inductance (L), capacitance (C) and resistance (R) meter (measure LCR
values)
An LCR meter is a type of electronic test equipment used to measure the inductance (L),
capacitance (C), and resistance (R) of an electronic component
Test probes
A multimeter with a built-in clamp facility. Pushing the large button at the bottom opens
the lower jaw of the clamp, allowing the clamp to be placed around a conductor (wire).
Depending on sensor, some can measure both AC and DC current.
5. Test light
A test light, test lamp, voltage tester, or mains tester is a piece of
electronic test equipment used to determine the presence of electricity in a piece of
equipment under test. A test light is simpler and less costly than a measuring instrument
such as a multimeter, and often suffices for checking for the presence of voltage on a
conductor
OTHER TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
Electrical projects are extraordinary in every sense, apart from specific subject knowledge
one also needs proper workspace, motive, and tools to accomplish a job. For the regular
domestic electrical projects, you can employ the most common tools that are present in
every household
1 . Pliers: You may have seen normal pliers in your home but the ones meant for electrical projects are
slightly different. You will need pliers with narrow tips that can take care of small and minute stuff like
resistor leads, copper wires, project dashboards, etc. Start with the lineman plier which is a common
domestic tool and then you can move on to the more specific ones. These are versatile and rugged tools and
best for bending large-gauge wires, pulling cables through conduits, cutting small bolts, screws, and even
hammer screws into initial positions.
Wire Cutter: The typical wire cutters are good for automotive or home wiring but
electrical wiring needs different cutters. The electrical cutters come with blades that can
spear through flush over a surface for trimming component leads over a PCB (Printed
Circuit Board) as best as possible. Some of these also have built-in retainers that keep the
cut wires or leads from flying off here and there. Apart from this flush cutter, you may also
want to add up diagonal cutters and end cutters in your kit.
Wire Strippers: If you want to strip insulation from wire with a pair of diagonal or flush
cutters, it may get risky. So, unless you are an expert, it is better to use a wire stripper.
There are a few pliers that come with built-in wire stripperss but lack the efficiency of a
professional wire stripper. You may also need to set these strippers correctly, only then
they will do a good job. Go to a ny close-by hardware shop and you will find a wide range
of wire strippers right from the normal to fancy as well as the automatic wire strippers.
Non-Contact Voltage Tester: Voltage testers are used for instant safety checks to ensure
that the electrical wires you are working with have no voltage. You must have seen the
regular testers in home, but now you can upgrade to the non-contact testers that offer
complete safety and simplicity of task. Just bring these close to the outlet slot or the wire
and you will be able to detect electricity in it
. Torpedo Level: The best thing about torpedo levels is that these are easy to fit in tool
pouches. A perfect tool when you need to level and plumb your work. Any installation task
would need outlet covers, straight switch and level boxes. Make sure you are completely
prepared with the best tool in hand.
. Socket and Hex Drivers: The most common kind of socket set can be availed from any hardware,
home improvement or auto parts store. The regular size of these devices range from .25 inch to ¾ inch. The
sizes can increase further but it all depends on the budget you have. Electronics projects have a different
need, so along with the regular one you need to own a electronics special socket driver kit. These wouldn’t
come with a ratchet rather you will need to plug the tools into a common handle. Every single entity in this
set has an integrated hand
Hex-socket-head bolts and screws will need hex key or hex wrench. Both of these can be
availed in ASME/ANSI along with a specific small size set inside a holder. Hex wrenches
come with ball-type ends and help wrenches in torque application to a fastener without
aligning it with screw or bolt axis. Try to get the hex wrenches and sockets in metric sizes
and both ANSI/ASME.
. Dies and Taps: Tapping refers to cutting of threads in required sized hole. The tool used
for this purpose is known as tap. Die, on the other hand, is another tool that assists in
cutting threads into blank rods for formation of threaded shafts. Dies are also useful in
repairs of damaged bolt threads. A tap and die can come handy any moment.
. Tweezers: A simple but essential set of tools, these will definitely help you sort out a lot
of complications. These come handy when you are working with small parts and need
something to hold those minute things in place For electronics and electrical purposes, you
can get an exclusive set of tweezers in a range of sizes and styles.
Small Hand Saws: Small hand saws can be needed for cutting out sheet materials or
tubes. For special purposes you can also get the jeweler’s saw that can create some odd-
shaped holes in anything. It uses a very narrow blade and would make things sharp without
binding. But be very careful because the blade can snap easily if you apply little extra
force.
Crimping Tools: Working with connectors with crimped terminals can be a daunting task.
A set of crimping tools can be the best help for simplifying such tasks. Crimping tools vary
from simple pliers-like equipment to most upgraded aerospace-graded ratcheted devices
called dies. The normal price range for these tools goes from $30 to $500. Electronics
projects require different kind of crimping tools that can be used with small terminal
components present in miniature connectors. Take the one that can strip and cut wires and
trim down machine screws.
Work is the measure of energy transfer that occurs when an object is moved over a
distance by an external force at least part of which is applied in the direction of the
displacement
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted. But for energy to do any useful
work it must be converted from one form into something else. For example, a motor
converts electrical energy into mechanical or kinetic (rotational) energy, while a generator
converts kinetic energy back into electrical energy to power a circuit..
For electrical energy to move electrons and produce a flow of current around a circuit,
work must be done, that is the electrons must move by some distance through a wire or
conductor. The work done is stored in the flow of electrons as energy. Thus “Work” is the
name we give to the process of energy.
We can therefore say that Work and Energy are effectively the same as energy can be
defined as “the ability to do some work”. Note that work done or energy transferred
applies equally to a mechanical system or thermal system as it does to an electrical system.
Power is the rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a circuit or consumed by a load.
The electrical energy is supplied to the load by an energy source such as an
electrochemical cell. cell does work upon a charge to move it from the low energy to the
high energy terminal. The work done on the charge is equivalent to the electrical potential
energy change of the charge. Thus, electrical power, like mechanical power, is the rate at
which work is done. Like current, power is a rate quantity. Its mathematical formula is
expressed on a per time basis.
Defining Current
A flow of charge. Using the word current in this context is - charge is moving. Yet current
is a physical quantity that can be measured and expressed numerically. As a physical
quantity, current is the rate at which charge flows past a point on a circuit. As depicted in
the diagram, the current in a circuit can be determined if the quantity of charge Q passing
through a cross section of a wire in a time t can be measured. The current is simply the
ratio of the quantity of charge and time
Conventional Current Direction
The charge carriers in semiconductors, street lamps and fluorescent lamps are
simultaneously both positive and negative charges traveling in opposite directions.
The direction of an electric current is by convention the direction in which a positive
charge would move. Thus, the current in the external circuit is directed away from the
positive terminal and toward the negative terminal of the battery. Electrons would actually
move through the wires in the opposite direction.
Definition of Efficiency
The ration of output Power to Input Power
Example:
A 2Hp motor operates at an efficiency of 75%. If the applied voltage is 220V, what is the input power
in Kilowatts?
A 2Hp motor operates at an efficiency of 75%. If the applied voltage is 220V, what is the input power
in Horsepower?
What is the output in Kilowatts of a motor with an efficiency of 80% and an input power of 96
Kilowatts?
What is the output in Horsepower of a motor with an efficiency of 80% and an input power of 96
Kilowatts?
What is the operating efficiency of a fully loaded 2Hp dc electric motor that draws 19A at
100V or 1.9Kw?
100V or 6Kw?
100V or 12Kw?
Ohm’s Law Wheel
.
Power is the rate of energy transfer
1. Watt – unit of electrical energy equal to one joule of energy consumed in one second. Named
after British engineer and inventor James Watt (1736-1819)
where: P = electric power (watt)
E = Voltage (volt)
I = Current (Ampere)
R= Resistance
2. Energy is the capacity to do work
where: W=Electrical Energy (joule
P = electric power (watt)
t = Time (seconds)
NOTE: 1 calorie = 4.186 joules
1 BTU = 252 calories
1 Kwh = 3600kj = 3413 BTU = 860 Kcal
1 joule =
1.Determine the current from a 9V battery across a network with 2.2Ω resistance.
Note: Write the given and refer to formulas in ohms law wheel
2. Calculate the current through the 2kΩ resistor if the voltage drop across it is 16V.
3. Calculate the resistance of a 60w bulb if a current of 500mA results from an applied
voltage of 120V.
4. Find the power delivered to the dc motor in HP, 1hp = 746Watts
5. Determine the current through a 5kΩ resistor when the power the power dissipated by the element is 20mW.
6. How much energy (in kilowatt-hours) is required to light a 100watt bulb (continuously for 1 year = 365
days)?
Note: Use unit analysis in solving the problem
7. How long can a 205W television set be on before using more than 4kWhr of energy?
8. What is the cost of using a 5Hp motor for two hours if the rate is P50.00 per kWhr ?
373 Pesos
9. What is the total cost of using all of the following at P50.00 per kWhr?
a) A 1200w toaster for 30min
b) six 50W bulbs for 4 hrs
c) A 400W washing machine for 45mins
d) A 4800W electric clothes dryer for 20mins
10. A circuit has a resistance of 8ohms. If a voltmeter connected across its terminal reads 10V, how much
current is flowing through the circuit?

11. A 200-V lamp has a hot resistance of 400 ohms. The power rating in watts of the lamp is ___________.
12. An electric motor drives a mechanical load, taking 18.8A from a 230V Source. Calculate the power
input of the motor.
13. A 10hp motor runs at rated load for 5 hours. How many kwh is consumed?
SEAT WORK
1. A residential house has a lighting load of 1000W and a small appliance load of 2000W.If they are used at the
same time, what will be the monthly bill at an energy cost of P0.40 per kilowatt-hour
2. A heater draws 2A at 12Volts dc. How many joules does it consume in 15minutes?
3. 10 kW is equal to how many calories per second.
4. What is the total cost of using all of the following at P12.50 per kWhr?
a) A 1200w toaster for 30min
b) six 20W bulbs for 24 hrs
c) A 4000W washing machine for 1 hour and 45mins
d) A 800W electric clothes dryer for 2 hours and 20mins
e) A 100W TV for 1 hours and 10 mins
f) A 15 KW welding machine for 45 mins
5. How much energy in JOULES does it take to drive a 200 HP car at 20% power for 3 hours. If it is 12%
efficient?
For the circuit shown below find the Voltage (V), the Current (I), the Resistance (R) and
the Power (P).
For the dial positions in Fig. 4.16(a), calculate the electricity bill if the previous reading
was 4650 kWh and the average cost in your area is 9¢ per kilowatt hour.
.
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
 Electrical Circuit is a system of conductors through which current of electricity flows
upon the application of electrical voltage
 DC Circuit is an electrical circuit in which the applied source is DC
 The common conductors in a electrical circuits are silver, copper and aluminum.
TYPES OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

• There are two general types of electric current, distinguished from each other by the
manner in which they vary in magnitude and direction; these are classified as
• (1) direct current
• (2) alternating current
Definition of Direct Current
A direct current sometimes called a continuous current, is an electric current that flows in
one direction. One in which the energy transfer takes place unidirectionally, with changes
in value from instant to instant that are either zero or so small that they may be neglected
Form of Direct Current
Direct current can be classified into three forms that can be derived from the three sources:
continuous DC which is produced by a battery, unidirectional dc derived from a dc
generator and pulsating dc produced from rectifier circuits (either half-wave or full-wave).
Definition of Alternating Current
An alternating current is one in which the direction alternates regularly and, unless
otherwise definitely stated, changes periodically in magnitude as well as direction.
WHAT IS ALTERNATING CURRENT?
 Most students of electricity begin their study with what is known as direct current (DC),
which is electricity flowing in a constant direction, and/or possessing a voltage with
constant polarity.
 DC is the kind of electricity made by a battery (with definite positive and negative
terminals), or the kind of charge generated by rubbing certain types of materials against
each other.
 Alternating Current vs Direct Current
 As useful and as easy to understand as DC is, it is not the only “kind” of electricity in use.
Certain sources of electricity (most notably, rotary electromechanical generators) naturally
produce voltages alternating in polarity, reversing positive and negative over time.
 Either as a voltage switching polarity or as a current switching direction back and forth,
this “kind” of electricity is known as Alternating Current (AC):
 Whereas the familiar battery symbol is used as a generic symbol for any DC voltage
source, the circle with the wavy line inside is the generic symbol for any AC voltage
source.
 One might wonder why anyone would bother with such a thing as AC. It is true that in
some cases AC holds no practical advantage over DC.
 In applications where electricity is used to dissipate energy in the form of heat, the
polarity or direction of current is irrelevant, so long as there is enough voltage and
current to the load to produce the desired heat (power dissipation). However, with AC it
is possible to build electric generators, motors and power distribution systems that are
far more efficient than DC, and so we find AC being used predominantly across the
world in high power applications
 To explain the details of why this is so, a bit of background knowledge about AC is
necessary
AC Alternators
If a machine is constructed to rotate a magnetic field around a set of stationary wire coils
with the turning of a shaft, AC voltage will be produced across the wire coils as that shaft
is rotated, in accordance with Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction.
This is the basic operating principle of an AC generator, also known as an alternator:
Figure below
Notice how the polarity of the voltage across the wire coils reverses as the opposite poles
of the rotating magnet pass by.
Connected to a load, this reversing voltage polarity will create a reversing current direction
in the circuit. The faster the alternator’s shaft is turned, the faster the magnet will spin,
resulting in an alternating voltage and current that switches directions more often in a
given amount of time.
While DC generators work on the same general principle of electromagnetic induction,
their construction is not as simple as their AC counterparts.
With a DC generator, the coil of wire is mounted in the shaft where the magnet is on the
AC alternator, and electrical connections are made to this spinning coil via stationary
carbon “brushes” contacting copper strips on the rotating shaft.
All this is necessary to switch the coil’s changing output polarity to the external circuit so
the external circuit sees a constant polarity
WHAT IS ELECTROMAGNETISM INDUCTION?
 While Oersted’s surprising discovery of electromagnetism paved the way for more
practical applications of electricity, it was Michael Faraday who gave us the key to the
practical generation of electricity: electromagnetic induction. Faraday discovered that a
voltage would be generated across a length of wire if that wire was exposed to a
perpendicular magnetic field flux of changing intensity.
 An easy way to create a magnetic field of changing intensity is to move a permanent
magnet next to a wire or coil of wire.
 Remember: The magnetic field must increase or decrease in intensity perpendicular to
the wire (so that the lines of flux “cut across” the conductor), or else no voltage will be
induced.
Faraday was able to mathematically relate the rate of change of the magnetic field flux
with induced voltage (note the use of a lower-case letter “e” for voltage. This refers
to instantaneous voltage, or voltage at a specific point in time, rather than a steady, stable
voltage.):
The “d” terms are standard calculus notation, representing rate-of-change of flux over
time. “N” stands for the number of turns, or wraps, in the wire coil (assuming that the wire
is formed in the shape of a coil for maximum electromagnetic efficiency).
This phenomenon is used in the construction of electrical generators, which use
mechanical power to move a magnetic field past coils of wire to generate voltage.
However, this is by no means the only practical use for this principle
DC Circuit Types
Every electrical circuit can be classified into three groups – series, series-parallel and
parallel. Thus, DC circuits can be divided into three categories: series DC circuit, series
and parallel DC circuit, and parallel DC circuit.
Series DC Circuit
When components are connected end to end, they are called a series circuit. In series DC
circuits, resistive elements are connected in an end to end way, creating a linear path for
flowing current.
Here, resistors R1, R2 and R3 are attached in series over a voltage source of V volts.
Electrical current ‘I’ is running through the given resistors.
Consider V1, V2 and V3 as the voltage drops over the resistors R1, R2 and R3.
Then,
If R is the total circuit resistance, then

The total effective resistance is equal to the sum of all individual resistances.
In these types of circuits, the entire system is controlled by a single switch. We cannot
individually control each section of the circuit.
When numerous electrical elements are attached in series, current propagates through all
the circuit elements.
Effective voltage over a series DC circuit is always directly proportional to its effective
resistance value.
The applied voltage over a series circuit is equivalent to the aggregate total of voltage
drops over each element.
1.) problem
2. Four 15 Ω resistors are connected in series with a 45 V battery. What is the current in
the circuit?
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ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Covers the generation, transmission, distribution and sale of electrical

e.g Building Controls-gates, doors, fire suppression, pumps

Signal processing is an electrical engineering subfield that focuses on

e.g. Radio Signals, Cellphone Signals, Radar, Missile Guidance

2. Parameters - The Various element of an electric circuit are known as

7. Branch - Is that part of a network which represents single circuit

8. Junction - A junction is a point in any given electrical circuit where

9. Node - Is a point in an electrical circuit where two or more elements

Examples: diode, transistor

2. Ohmmeter (Measures resistance)

3. Ammeter, e.g. Galvanometer or Milliammeter (Measures current)

3. Multimeter e.g., VOM (Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter) or DMM

TYPES OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

If R is the total circuit resistance, then

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