GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 301 (CGEV301)

Consolidation and Settlement

Week 1 & 2 of Term 2 (Sem 1 of 2020)
 Consolidation and Settlement
• A stress increase caused by construction of foundations
or other loads compresses soil layers.
• The compression is caused by deformation of soil
particles, relocation of soil particles and expulsion of
water from the void spaces.
• This process is also termed as consolidation.
• Consolidation may also be defined as the gradual
reduction in volume of a fully saturated soil of low
permeability due to drainage of some of the pore water,
the process continuing until the excess pore water
pressure caused by increase in total stress has
completely dissipated.
• It occurs in fine grained soils (cohesive soils) that are
fully saturated.
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 Consolidation and Settlement
• It is caused by an applied load (static load) over a length
of time.
• The amount of time for completion of the consolidation
process depends on the permeability of the soil.
• The results of consolidation are that there is a decrease
in total volume of a layer and the load is subjected to
downward movement which is called settlement.
• The total settlement has three components, that is:
Immediate or Elastic settlement,
Primary Consolidation settlement,
Secondary Consolidation settlement.

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 Consolidation and Settlement
• Immediate or Elastic Settlement is caused by the elastic
deformation of dry soil and of moist and saturated soils
without change in the moisture content.
• Primary Consolidation Settlement occurs due volume
change in saturated fine-grained soils as a result of
expulsion of the water that occupies the void spaces.
• Secondary Consolidation Settlement is indicated by the
continuation of the oedometer test curve beyond the
primary stage, that is, after the near-complete
dissipation of excess pore pressure.

• NB: These definitions are not so important, what is

important is understanding how settlement occurs!!!

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 Consolidation and Settlement
• When a saturated soil layer is subjected to an increase
in stress, pore water pressure increases (refer to
chapter 5).
• Highly permeable soils such as sand, drain immediately from
the increase in pore water pressure.
• Rapid drainage results in elastic settlement and consolidation,
except for soils with low k such as clay.
• Any change in total volume means corresponding change in
voids ratio (e) as well as in the moisture content.
• The soil structure is made out of the volume of solid particles
and the void spaces (which are filled with air or water), so as
compression takes place, the voids tend to decrease.

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 Consolidation and Settlement
• Which means, with an increase in load there would be a
decrease in the voids ratio (which is the ratio of the
volume of voids to the volume of solid particles).
• The consolidation test is done in the laboratory using an
oedometer and this is done in terms of effective
pressure and voids ratio.
• The results of an oedometer test are presented by the
pressure-voids ratio curve.
• NB: read how the test is conducted from pg. 268 – 69,
search for a video online if possible!!!
This chapter focuses on solving two problems:
• The magnitude of consolidation of soil and consequent
settlement of a structure.
• The length of time taken to reach maximum settlement
of a structure. 6
Consolidation and Settlement

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Consolidation and Settlement

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 Consolidation and Settlement
Now let us look at the - e curve, the graph is plotted
using the Oedometer results.

Focus on example 7.1

• Before we start, remember we are only considering

cohesive soils (clay) for now and these materials have
low k values)!

• The results in example 7.1 are from an oedometer test

and you must record the moisture content of the soil
before the test and you must also check in the end (due
to the saturation).

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Consolidation and Settlement – Example 1
Note: (initial moisture content) the moisture content is
taken before the test!!!

eo = 0.278 x 2.7 = 0.751

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 Consolidation and Settlement
1. Shows the intervals of readings
2. Applied stress (you increase the load incrementally, so
you start with a low value). It’s a reading from the test,
therefore given!.
3. Dx is the vertical strain or simple put, the actual height
the sample decreased by (in mm). Remember as you
apply the load, the sample compresses so that is
measured in terms of Dx. It’s a reading from the test,
therefore given.
4. Height of the soil sample. This will change based on Dx.
This value is calculated taking into consideration Dx i.e.
in example 7.1, the initial height is 19mm and at
interval 3, Dx = 0.72. Therefore hx = 19 – 0.72 = 18.28
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5. This is the voids ratio, it is calculated using equation
7.3 and 7.4 (these equations are applicable when the
moisture content is taken at the beginning of the test
(initial moisture content), and you know e at the
beginning of the test). However, if the height is
measured after swelling, then you must use equation
7.5 and 7.6. When using formula 7.3, use hx (ho – Dx)
and when using formula 7.4, use Dx (given). Also
check section 7.2.3
6. eo or es is calculated using the formula, e = mGs.
• NB: The sample is saturated during the test, once the
load is removed it tends to expand (that is the swell).
Note interval 8. Also refer to slide 8!
• Once you have calculated e, plot the - e. See next
slide 12
 Consolidation and Settlement
• The graph is plotted as shown in the figure below, the
compression curve is plotted from the readings from
interval 1 – 7. The swell curve takes interval 8 into
account.

• You will notice that at  = 0, e is higher and as 

increases, e decreases. This is due to the voids being
“forced” by the load to come together and the water
dissipates. 13
 Consolidation and Settlement
Summary for the - e curve:

• First calculate the initial voids ratio (or final voids ratio
using the swell results), using e = mGs
• Then process the oedometer results as explained in the
previous slides to get e.  is given.
• Lastly plot on a graph paper, e vertically and 
horizontally. You do not have to plot the swell curve. I
will explain later when is that value important.

• Leave out graphical solution, section 7.2.4.

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 Consolidation and Settlement
Forms of the  - e curve

• The shape of the curve depends largely on the

geological history of the soil.
• It should be noted that there are two main types of clay:
• Normally consolidated – more compressible, as a result
tends to swell.
• Overconsolidated – less compressible and unlikely to
swell.

• Clays are formed by sedimentation, that is, the particles

are gradually deposited and compressed by the weight
of increasingly thick overburden. This increase in
overburden increases weight hence compression.
• READ pg. 281 (Sect. 7.3.1 only). 15
 Consolidation and Settlement

Take time to make sure you understand slide 2 –

15 (that includes completing example 7.1)

Then move on to the next session.

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Coefficient of compressibility (av)

• It is the slope of the  - e curve at a point, for small increments of

stress.
• It can be defined as the decrease in void ratio per unit increase in
stress.
• Further demonstrated by the blue circle in the diagram and
equation below.
• Due to load increase, the soil is “compressed a bit more” hence the
voids (spaces in the soil, filled with water) will decrease.
• Note: e1 corresponds with 1 and e2 with 2 (low , high e

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Coefficient of volume change (mv)

• It is the change in unit volume caused by unit change in the
effective stress.
• Also referred to as coefficient of volume change. Represents the
compression of the soil, per unit original thickness/volume, due to a
unit increase of pressure
• It is applied to the estimation of consolidation and settlement and
may be formulated in two ways:
1. Voids ratio method
2. Direct method, using the oedometer reading Dx

2 3

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 Consolidation and Settlement

1. Write down the equation for av and mv.

2. The calculation is based on the oedometer results. So you must refer to the
- e curve. In this case, refer to graph 7.1 on pg. 275.
3. Consider the pressure range. In this case, it’s between 90 and 200 kN/m 3.
4. Now go to graph 7.1 and read off e corresponding to 90 and 200 kN/m3.
These are read off from the curve (so you can use your ruler, once you are
on 90 horizontally, you draw a vertical line until you reach the curve, then
draw a horizontal line. Then read off e.
5. Substitute e and  to the equations and solve the problem!
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Take time to make sure you understand slide 17 –

19 (that includes completing example 7.2)

Then move on to the next session.

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Example 1
The following results were recorded from a consolidation test on a
sample of saturated clay, each pressure being maintained constant for
24 hours. The moisture content at the end of the test was 23.1% and
the specific gravity of the soil particles was 2.68.

1. Calculate the voids ratio at the end of each pressure stage and
plot the pressure – voids ratio curve.
2. Determine the coefficient of compressibility and the coefficient of
volume change for the pressure range between 100kN/m2 and
400kN/m2
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Solution:
The moisture content is taken at the end, meaning after swelling. This means you will
have to determine es

1. Write down equation 7.5 or 7.6.

2. First determine es, using es = mGs (these are given).

es = 0.231 x 2.68
= 0.62

3. Now, determine hs, this is the height (thickness) of the sample after swelling. h s =
24.2mm (how do you know this, after the load was removed, the sample expanded.
The height at applied stress = 800 was 23.7mm at interval 6, but at interval 7 with no
loading the height is 24.2mm.
4. Substitute as required in the equation. Noting that h x is the height at each applied
stress i.e. at 100 kPa, h = 24.4mm. The initial height of the sample is 25mm (0 kPa).
5. Using a graph paper, plot the  - e curve (you can make your own scale on a blank
page if you don’t have a graph paper).
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Applied
Pressure
(kN/m3 ) 0 50 100 200 400 800 0

h (mm) 25 24.6 24.4 24.2 23.9 23.7 24.2

e 0.674 0.647 0.633 0.62 0.6 0.586 0.62

av = for the pressure range @ 100kN/m2 e = 0.633 and @ 400kN/m2 e = 0.6

= = 0.00011 m2/kN

mv = = = 6.74 x 10-5 m2/kN

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• The next step is to determine the extent of
settlement.
• Settlement occurs in the layer. The oedometer
results are used in the estimation of settlement.

Make sure you understand everything before you

move on!

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 Thank you!
Enkosi!
Dankie!

Please contact: Mrs Y Madyibi

Yonela.madyibi@mandela.ac.za
or via Moodle
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