International Relations
International Relations
International Relations
According to some scholars in the field of international politics, international relations simply involve the relationships between nations. It deals with the study of the contacts and intersections between various social and political groups in the international community. The study includes international society and its institutions. The members of the international society comprise all individuals, states and organizations
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
The objectives and decisions affect, to a great extent , international life. These members are the Individuals who are actors and participants in the international society and they can influence international politics through the humanizing movement in international affairs. Other members are the states which possess, the attributes of the collective personality of all its people in its political territory which play an important role in the international scene.
The participants were aware that their conflicts with one another will affect other nations.
The growing interdependence of individual politics has so extended the scope of international politics that almost any course of action undertaken by a single nation will directly have some influence on the welfare of one or more other nations, whether a nations policies are focused on foreign or domestic affairs, or whether they are openly belligerent.
NUCLEAR WEAPONS
The 1st World War which involved Western Europe and the United States was fought largely on the Atlantic. It looked as if man had learned his lesson after the war. What followed was a period of reconstruction and unified efforts to preserve world peace, for war destroys life.
NUCLEAR WEAPONS
But man does not learn from history. Overcome by greed and power, he rises anew to dictate his desires upon the world. This character of the dictators of the totalitarian states of Germany, Italy and Japan brought about another war the 2nd World War ( bloody and the most terrifying war in history). For man had invested a weapon that could annihilate all - the Atomic Bomb.
NUCLEAR WEAPONS
Today, men all over the world seek peace. The crises of the cold war keeps man on his toes but he can and must do everything to save succeeding generations from the scourge war.
The principle of national sovereignty implies that each nation has the right to decide whether to protect itself by building nuclear weapons. The right to build nuclear weapons has been exercised to a point where we now have the capacity to destroy ourselves, it will be noted that some nations have developed some form of nuclear weapons.
NUCLEAR WEAPONS
The history of the nuclear arms superiority and the threats brought about to the human race has been the continuing efforts of the participants in the international society to arrive at amicable international arrangements to limit the proliferation of such weapons.
Amnesty International
Amnesty International (commonly known as Amnesty and AI) is an international non-governmental organisation whose stated mission is "to conduct research and generate action to prevent and end grave abuses of human rights, and to demand justice for those whose rights have been violated." Following a publication of Peter Benenson's article "The Forgotten Prisoners" in The Observer 28 May 1961, Amnesty was founded in London the same year. Amnesty draws attention to human rights abuses and campaigns for compliance with international laws and standards. It works to mobilise public opinion to put pressure on governments that let abuse take place.The organisation was awarded the 1977 Nobel Peace Prize for its "campaign againsttorture", and the United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights in 1978.
Amnesty International
In the field of international human rights organisations (of which there were 300 in 1996),[7] Amnesty has the longest history and broadest name recognition, and "is believed by many to set standards for the movement as a whole."[7] Amnesty International primarily targets governments, but also reports on non-governmental bodies and private individuals ("non-state actors").
Amnesty International
There are six key areas which Amnesty deals with: Women's, children's, minorities' and indigenous rights Ending torture Abolition of the death penalty Rights of refugees Rights of prisoners of conscience Protection of human dignity. Some specific aims are to: abolish the death penalty, end extra judicial executions and "disappearances," ensure prison conditions meet international human rights standards, ensure prompt and fair trial for all political prisoners, ensure free education to all children worldwide, decriminalise abortion,[48] fight impunity from systems of justice, end the recruitment and use of child soldiers, free allprisoners of conscience, promote economic, social and cultural rights for marginalized communities, protect human rights defenders, promote religious tolerance, protect LGBT rights,[49] stop torture and ill-treatment, stop unlawful killings in armed conflict, uphold the rights of refugees, migrants, and asylum seekers, and protect human dignity.
Amnesty International
To further these aims, Amnesty International has developed several techniques to publicise information and mobilise public opinion. The organisation considers as one of its strengths the publication of impartial and accurate reports. Reports are researched by: interviewing victims and officials, observing trials, working with local human rights activists, and monitoring the media. It aims to issue timely press releases and publishes information in newsletters and on web sites. It also sends official missions to countries to make courteous but insistent inquiries. Campaigns to mobilise public opinion can take the form of individual, country, or thematic campaigns. Many techniques are deployed, such as direct appeals (for example, letter writing), media and publicity work, and public demonstrations. Often, fund-raising is integrated with campaigning. In situations which require immediate attention, Amnesty International calls on existing urgent action networks or crisis response networks; for all other matters, it calls on its membership. It considers the large size of its human resources to be another of its key strengths.
Amnesty International
The role of Amnesty International has an immense impact on getting citizens onboard with focusing on human rights issues. These groups influence countries and governments to give their people justice with pressure and in man power. An example of Amnesty International's work, which began in the 1960s by writing letters to free imprisoned people that were put there for nonviolent expressions. The group now has power, attends sessions, and became a source of information for the U.N. The increase in participation of non-governmental organizations changes how we live today. Felix Dodds states in a recent document that, In the 1972 there were 39 democratic countries in the world; by 2002, there were 139. This shows that non-governmental organizations make enormous leaps within a short period of time for human rights.
Treaties
A treaty is an express agreement under international law entered into by actors in international law, namely sovereign states and international organizations. A treaty may also be known as an (international) agreement, protocol, covenant, convention or excha nge of letters, among other terms. Regardless of terminology, all of these forms of agreements are, under international law, equally considered treaties and the rules are the same.[1] Treaties can be loosely compared to contracts: both are means of willing parties assuming obligations among themselves, and a party to either that fails to live up to their obligations can be held liable under international law.
Treaties
A treaty is an express agreement under international law entered into by actors in international law, namely sovereign states and international organizations. A treaty may also be known as an (international) agreement, protocol, covenant, convention or excha nge of letters, among other terms. Regardless of terminology, all of these forms of agreements are, under international law, equally considered treaties and the rules are the same.[1] Treaties can be loosely compared to contracts: both are means of willing parties assuming obligations among themselves, and a party to either that fails to live up to their obligations can be held liable under international law.
INTERNATIONAL LAW
International law is the term commonly used for referring to laws that govern the conduct of independent nations in their relationships with one another. It differs from other legal systems in that it primarily concerns provinces rather than private citizens. In other words, it is that body of law which is composed for its greater part of the principles and rules of conduct which States feel themselves bound to observe, and (a) The rules of law relating to the function of international institutions or organizations, their relations with each other and their relations with States and individuals; and (b) Certain rules of law relating to individuals and non-state entities so far as the rights and duties of such individuals and non-state entities are the concern of the international community.
INTERNATIONAL LAW
However, the term "international law" can refer to three distinct legal disciplines: Public international law, which governs the relationship between provinces and international entities, either as an individual or as a group. It includes the following specific legal field such as the treaty law, law of sea, international criminal law and the international humanitarian law. Private international law, or conflict of laws, which addresses the questions of (1) which jurisdiction may hear a case, and (2) the law concerning which jurisdiction applies to the issues in the case. Supranational law or the law of supranational organizations, which concerns at present regional agreements where the special distinguishing quality is that laws of nation states are held inapplicable when conflicting with a supranational legal system. The two traditional branches of the field are: jus gentium law of nations jus inter gentes agreements between nations
UNITED NATIONS
United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security,economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace theLeague of Nations, to stop wars between countries, and to provide a platform for dialogue. It contains multiple subsidiary organizations to carry out its missions. There are currently 193 member states, including every internationally recognised sovereign state in the world but the Vatican City. From its offices around the world, the UN and its specialized agencies decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held throughout the year. The organization has six principal organs: the General Assembly (the main deliberative assembly); the Security Council (for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security); the Economic and Social Council (for assisting in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development); the Secretariat (for providing studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN); the International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ); and the United Nations Trusteeship Council (which is currently inactive). Other prominent UN System agencies include the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Food Programme (WFP) and United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). The UN's most visible public figure is the Secretary-General, currently Ban Ki-moon of South Korea, who attained the post in 2007.
UNITED NATIONS
The organization is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, and has six official languages: Arabic, Mandarin Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish The United Nations' system is based on five principal organs (formerly sixthe Trusteeship Council suspended operations in 1994, upon the independence of Palau, the last remaining UN trustee territory);[9] the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the Secretariat, and the International Court of Justice. Four of the five principal organs are located at the main United Nations headquarters located on international territory in New York City. The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague, while other major agencies are based in the UN offices at Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi. Other UN institutions are located throughout the world.
UNITED NATIONS
The six official languages of the United Nations, used in intergovernmental meetings and documents, are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish,.[2] The Secretariat uses two working languages, English and French. Four of the official languages are the national languages of the permanent members of the Security Council (the United Kingdom and the United States share English as a de facto official language); Spanish and Arabic are the languages of the two largest blocs of official languages outside of the permanent members (Spanish being official in 20 countries, Arabic in 26). Five of the official languages were chosen when the UN was founded; Arabic was added later in 1973. The United Nations Editorial Manual states that the standard for English language documents isBritish usage and Oxford spelling, the Chinese writing standard is Simplified Chinese. This replaced Traditional Chinese in 1971 when the UN representation of China was changed from the Republic of China to the People's Republic of China.
UNITED NATIONS
General Assembly
UNITED NATIONS
The General Assembly is the main deliberative assembly of the United Nations. Composed of all United Nations member states, the assembly meets in regular yearly sessions under a president elected from among the member states. Over a two-week period at the start of each session, all members have the opportunity to address the assembly. Traditionally, the Secretary-General makes the first statement, followed by the president of the assembly. The first session was convened on 10 January 1946 in the Westminster Central Hall in London and included representatives of 51 nations.
UNITED NATIONS
When the General Assembly votes on important questions, a two-thirds majority of those present and voting is required. Examples of important questions include: recommendations on peace and security; election of members to organs; admission, suspension, and expulsion of members; and, budgetary matters. All other questions are decided by majority vote. Each member country has one vote. Apart from approval of budgetary matters, resolutions are not binding on the members. The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of peace and security that are under Security Council consideration.
UNITED NATIONS
Security Council
UNITED NATIONS
The Security Council is charged with maintaining peace and security among countries. While other organs of the United Nations can only make 'recommendations' to member governments, the Security Council has the power to make binding decisions that member governments have agreed to carry out, under the terms of Charter Article 25.[10] The decisions of the Council are known as United Nations Security Council resolutions. The Security Council is made up of 15 member states, consisting of 5 permanent membersChina, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United Statesand 10 non-permanent members, currently Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Colombia, Gabon, Germany, India, Lebanon, Nigeria, Portugal, South Africa. The five permanent members hold veto power over substantive but not procedural resolutions allowing a permanent member to block adoption but not to block the debate of a resolution unacceptable to it. The ten temporary seats are held for two-year terms with member states voted in by the General Assembly on a regional basis. The presidency of the Security Council is rotated alphabetically each month.[11]
UNITED NATIONS
Secretariat
The United Nations Secretariat Building at the United Nations headquarters in New York City The United Nations Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide. It provides studies, information, and facilities needed by United Nations bodies for their meetings. It also carries out tasks as directed by the UN Security Council, the UN General Assembly, the UN Economic and Social Council, and other UN bodies. The United Nations Charter provides that the staff be chosen by application of the "highest standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity," with due regard for the importance of recruiting on a wide geographical basis.
UNITED NATIONS
The Charter provides that the staff shall not seek or receive instructions from any authority other than the UN. Each UN member country is enjoined to respect the international character of the Secretariat and not seek to influence its staff. The Secretary-General alone is responsible for staff selection. The Secretary-General's duties include helping resolve international disputes, administering peacekeeping operations, organizing international conferences, gathering information on the implementation of Security Council decisions, and consulting with member governments regarding various initiatives. Key Secretariat offices in this area include the Office of the Coordinator of Humanitarian Affairs and the Department of Peacekeeping Operations. The Secretary-General may bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter that, in his or her opinion, may threaten international peace and security.
UNITED NATIONS
Secretary-General
UNITED NATIONS
The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, who acts as the de facto spokesperson and leader of the UN. The current Secretary-General is Ban Ki-moon, who took over from Kofi Annan in 2007 and has been elected for a second term to conclude at the end of 2016.[12] Envisioned by Franklin D. Roosevelt as a "world moderator", the position is defined in the UN Charter as the organization's "chief administrative officer",[13] but the Charter also states that the Secretary-General can bring to the Security Council's attention "any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance ofinternational peace and security",[14] giving the position greater scope for action on the world stage. The position has evolved into a dual role of an administrator of the UN organization, and a diplomat and mediator addressing disputes between member states and finding consensus to global issues.[15]
UNITED NATIONS
The Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly, after being recommended by the Security Council, any member of which can veto,[16] and the General Assembly can theoretically override the Security Council's recommendation if a majority vote is not achieved, although this has not happened so far.[17] There are no specific criteria for the post, but over the years, it has become accepted that the post shall be held for one or two terms of five years, that the post shall be appointed on the basis of geographical rotation, and that the SecretaryGeneral shall not originate from one of the five permanent Security Council member states
UNITED NATIONS
International Court of Justice
UNITED NATIONS
The International Court of Justice (ICJ), located in The Hague, Netherlands, is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. Established in 1945 by the United Nations Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice. The Statute of the International Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the Court.[19] It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands, sharing the building with the Hague Academy of International Law, a private centre for the study of international law. Several of the Court's current judges are either alumni or former faculty members of the Academy. Its purpose is to adjudicate disputes among states. The court has heard cases related to war crimes, illegal state interference and ethnic cleansing, among others, and continues to hear cases.[20]
UNITED NATIONS
A related court, the International Criminal Court (ICC), began operating in 2002 through international discussions initiated by the General Assembly. It is the first permanent international court charged with trying those who commit the most serious crimes under international law, including war crimes and genocide. The ICC is functionally independent of the UN in terms of personnel and financing, but some meetings of the ICC governing body, the Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute, are held at the UN. There is a "relationship agreement" between the ICC and the UN that governs how the two institutions regard each other legally.[21]
UNITED NATIONS
Economic and Social Council
UNITED NATIONS
The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) assists the General Assembly in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development. ECOSOC has 54 members, all of which are elected by the General Assembly for a three-year term. The president is elected for a one-year term and chosen amongst the small or middle powers represented on ECOSOC. ECOSOC meets once a year in July for a fourweek session. Since 1998, it has held another meeting each April with finance ministers heading key committees of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Viewed separate from the specialized bodies it coordinates, ECOSOC's functions include information gathering, advising member nations, and making recommendations. In addition, ECOSOC is well-positioned to provide policy coherence and coordinate the overlapping functions of the UNs subsidiary bodies and it is in these roles that it is most active.