CHAPTER 6 : CELL

DIVISION
BiologY Form 4 KSSM
By Cikgu Norazila Khalid =)
Smk Ulu Tiram, Johor
Edited By : TNT - SMSS
6.1 CELL DIVISION
CELL DIVISION

 Cells in our body always grow,

divide and die. As such, the
dead cells must be replaced
with new cells.
 Cells in the body produce new
cells through the cell division
process.
 CELL DIVISION

 Cell division involves two stages, that is

karyokinesis and cytokinesis.
 Karyokinesis involves the division of the
nucleus.
 Cytokinesis involves the division of the
cytoplasm.
 The organism’s body cells are divided into
somatic cells and reproductive cells or gametes.
 In diploid cells, one set of chromosomes
originate from the male parent or paternal
chromosomes and another set is from the
female parent or maternal chromosomes.
 Both paternal and maternal
chromosomes have the same structural
characteristics.
 This pair of chromosomes are called
homologous chromosomes (Figure 6.1)
 Chromatin is a chromosome that looks
like a long thread.
6.2 CELL CYCLE AND MITOSIS
 CELL CYCLE

 The cell cycle refers to the sequence

of events that involves DNA
 multiplication and cell division to
produce two daughter cells. The cell
 cycle consists of interphase and M
phase. Interphase is the longest
 phase in the cell cycle. This phase is
made up of the G1, S and G2 phase.
 G1 PHASE
 Cells grow.
 Cell components such as
mitochondrion and
endoplasmic reticulum are
produced at this stage.
 Proteins used in the cell
cycle are also synthesised
during this time.
 At this stage, the nucleus
looks big and the
chromosome is in the form
of chromatin.
 S PHASE
 Sintesis DNA berlaku dalam
fasa S apabila DNA dalam
nukleus menjalani replikasi.
 Setiap kromosom
mengganda menjadi dua
kromatid seiras yang dikenali
sebagai kromatid kembar.
 Kedua-dua kromatid
mengandungi salinan
molekul DNA yang sama.
 Kedua-dua kromatid ini
berpaut pada sentromer.
 G2 PHASE
 The cells will continue to
grow and remain active
metabolically during the
G2 phase.
 Cells gather energy and
make final arrangements
to enter the next stage of
cell division.
 After the interphase
stage, the cell will enter
the M phase.
 M PHASE

 M phase is made up of
mitosis and cytokinesis.
 Mitosis involves
prophase, metaphase,
anaphase and
telophase.
 Mitosis is defined as the division of the
nucleus of parent cell into two nuclei
(Photograph 6.1).
 Each nucleus contains the same number of
chromosomes and genetic content with the
nucleus of parent cell.

MITOSIS
  In the nucleus, chromatin starts to shorten and thicken to
form a chromosome structure that can be seen through a light
microscope.
 The chromosome is seen to be made up of two identical
threads called sister chromatids.
 Both sister chromatids are joined at the centromere.
 The nucleus membrane disintegrates, the nucleolus
disappears, the centriole moves to the opposite poles and the
spindle fibres start to form

PROPHASE
  Centrioles are at the opposite poles of
the cell.
 The spindle fibres maintain the
chromosomes at the equatorial plane.
 The chromosomes become aligned in a
single row on the equatorial plane.
 Metaphase ends when the centromere
begins to divide

METAPHASE
  The centromere divides into two and
the sister chromatids separate.
 Spindle fibres shorten, contract and
the sister chromatids are attracted
to the opposite pole cells.
 Anaphase ends when the chromatid
arrives at the pole of the cell.

ANAPHASE
  When the chromatids are at the opposite
poles, they are now called the daughter
chromosome.
 Each pole contains one set of complete
and identical chromosomes.
 Chromosomes are shaped again as fine
chromatin threads.
 Nucleoli are formed again.
 Spindle fibres disappear.
 A new nucleus membrane is formed.
 The telophase stage is followed by
cytokinesis.
TELOPHASE
 THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN MITOSIS
AND CYTOKINESIS IN
ANIMAL CELLS AND
CENTRIOLE
PLANT CELLS
 Plant cells do not contain
centrioles.
 However, plant cells can
still form spindle fibres
during mitosis.
 Cytokinesis is different between animal cells and
plant cells.
 Cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm that
happens immediately after the nucleus is formed,
that is, at the end of telophase.
 Cytokinesis occurs in animal cells when the
plasma membrane constricts in the middle of the
cell between the two nuclei (Figure 6.4).
 Microfilaments at the point of constriction will
contract, causing the cell to constrict until it splits
to form two daughter cells.

CYTOKINESIS IN ANIMAL CELLS

  Cytokinesis in plant cells also begins when
the formed vesicles combine to form cell
plates at the centre of the cell (Figure 6.5).
 The cell plates are surrounded by a new
plasma membrane and a new cell wall
substance is formed among the spaces of
the cell plates.
 The cell plates expand outwards until they
combine with the plasma membranes.
 At the end of cytokinesis, cellulose fibres
are produced by the cells to strengthen the
new cell walls. Two daughter cells are
formed. Each cell has a diploid condition.
CYTOKINESIS IN PLANT CELLS
 Through the mitosis
process, the lizard is able
to grow a new tail
(regeneration) if the tail
breaks.

THE NECESSITY OF
MITOSIS
THE NECESSITY
OF MITOSIS

For embryo development

and organism growth
mitosis ensures that
rapid cell growth occurs.
 THE
NECESSITY OF
MITOSIS
 Mitosis aids organisms
such as hydra to produce
new individuals through
the formation of new buds.
 When the body is injured, mitosis will
produce new cells to replace cells that
are dead or damaged.

THE NECESSITY OF
MITOSIS
 THE
NECESSITY OF
MITOSIS

 The culturing technique

uses stem cells from
animals which are then
cultured in laboratories to
produce meat.
 THE NECESSITY OF MITOSIS
Stem cell therapy uses stem cells from bone marrows to
treat damaged cartilage.
In agriculture, the technique of
culturing plant tissues is used
to produce young plants
through the culturing of parent
cells without going through the
fertilisation process

THE NECESSITY
OF MITOSIS
6.3 MEIOSIS
  Meiosis is the process of cell division
that occurs in reproductive organs to
produce gametes
 that contain half the number of
chromosomes (haploid) of the parent
cells (diploid).
 Meiosis occurs in the testis (male)
and ovary (female) for animals and
humans.

MEIOSIS
 Meiosis forms gametes through the
process of gametogenesis
 ensures that the diploid
chromosome number of organisms
that carry out sex reproduction is
always maintained from one
generation to the next.
 Meiosis also produces genetic
variation in the same species.

THE NEED FOR MEIOSIS

  Meiosis is divided into two stages of cell division,
that is meiosis I and meiosis II (Figure 6.6).
 a. Meiosis I comprises of prophase I, metaphase I,
anaphase I and telophase I
 b. Meiosis II comprises of prophase II, metaphase
II, anaphase II and telophase I

MEIOSIS
 Chromatin shortens, thickens and forms
visible chromosomes.
 The pairing of homologous
chromosomes (synapsis) forms bivalent
(or known as a tetrad, that is four
chromatids for each homologous
chromosome).

PROPHASE I
 The crossing over process that is an exchange of genetic material
between non-identical chromatids takes place.
 Crossing over produces a combination of genes that are new in
chromosomes.
 The point where the chromatids cross over is called chiasma.
 At the end of prophase I, the nucleus membrane and nucleoli will start
to disappear.
 Both centrioles will move towards the opposite pole cells. Spindle fibres
are formed among the centrioles.

PROPHASE I
 PROFASA I

• Homologous chromosome
• Sister chromatid
PROPHASE I • Synapsis
• Bivalent
• Crossing over
METAPHASE I

 The homologous
chromosomes are
arranged at the
equatorial plane.
 One chromosome from each pair of
the homologous chromosome is tied to
the spindle fibres from one pole cell
 and its homologous is tied to the
spindle fibres from the opposite pole
cell.
 The sister chromatids are still tied
together because the centromere has
not separated.

METAPHASE I
ANAPHASE I
 The spindle fibres contract
and cause each homologous
chromosome to separate from
its homologous pair and be
pulled to the opposite poles.
 Each chromosome is still
made up of a pair of sister
chromatids tied to a
centromere and move as one
unit
 The chromosomes arrive at the
opposite pole cells.
 Each polar cell contains a
number of haploid chromosomes
that are made up of one set of
chromosomes only.
 The spindle fibres will then
disappear.
 Nucleoli will reappear and the
nuclear membrane is formed.

TELOPHASE I
 TELOFASA I
 Telophase I is succeeded by
the cytokinesis
 process that produces two
daughter cells.
 Both daughter cells produced
are in the haploid condition.
 The interphase for meiosis I
is usually short and the DNA
does not replicate.
PROFASA II
 The nucleoli and the
nuclear membrane
disappear.
 Each chromosome is made
up of sister chromatids that
are joined at the
centromere.
 The spindle fibres start to
form in both daughter cells.
 METAPHASE II
 Chromosomes are arranged
at random on the equatorial
plane for each daughter cell.
 Each chromatid is tied to the
spindle fibres at the
centromere.
 Metaphase II ends when the
centromere separates.
 ANAPHASE II
 The sister chromatid
centromere starts to separate.
 The sister chromatid pair
separates and moves towards
the opposite poles led by the
centromere.
 Each chromatid at this stage is
known as a chromosome.
 TELOPHASE II
 Chromosomes arrive at the
pole of the cell.
 Spindle fibres disappear. The
nuclear membrane and the
nucleoli are reconstructed.
 The number of chromosome
for each daughter cell is half
the number of parent
chromosomes.
 TELOPHASE II
 Telophase II ends with the
process of cytokinesis that
produces four daughter cells
that are haploid.
 Each haploid cell contains
half the number of parent cell
chromosomes.
 The genetic content is also
different from the diploid
parent cell.
 The haploid cells develop into
gametes.
COMPARISON
AND
CONTRAST
BETWEEN
MEIOSIS AND
MITOSIS
6.4 ISSUES OF CELL DIVISION
ON HUMAN HEALTH
 The cell cycle is controlled by a special control
system at each G1, S, G2 and M phase to ensure
proper division of the cells.
 However, uncontrolled cell division sometimes can
lead to the formation of tumours. .

ISSUES OF CELL DIVISION ON

HUMAN HEALTH
 Tumour is divided into two types which are benign
tumour and malignant tumour.
 A benign tumour is not dangerous and can be
removed surgically. A malignant tumour is also
called cancer.
 Cancer is caused by several factors such as radiation
(x-ray, gamma rays and ultraviolet rays), chemical
substances (such as tar in tobacco), carcinogens
(such as formaldehyde and benzene), genetic
factors, and also bacteria and viruses.
 This will cause the cells to divide continuously and
develop into a tumour.
 The cancer cells will spread and destroy normal cells
around them.
 This condition will affect the functions of the tissues
around them.
 Cancer that is not identified at the early stage can cause
damage to the organs and finally death
 Any abnormality during the division of meiosis can
also cause genetic diseases such as Down syndrome.
 An individual with Down syndrome has 47
chromosomes,
 which is an extra chromosome at the 21st set.
 This condition is known as trisomy 21.
 This syndrome can cause mental retardation,
slanted eyes and a slightly protruding tongue.
This happens because the spindle fibres
fail to function during anaphase I or
anaphase II.
As a result, the chromosome fails to
separate (nondisjunction).
Gametes will have an abnormal number
of chromosomes (22 or 24 chromosomes).
If fertilisation between a normal gamete
(23 chromosomes) and an abnormal
chromosome (24 chromosomes) occurs, the
zygote will carry 47 chromosomes which is
an abnormal condition
THE END